A Comparison of the American Dream in Death of a Salesman...

The Value of a Dream in Death of a Salesman and A Raisin in the Sun How does one value a dream? This question arises while reading both Arthur Millers Death of a Salesman and Lorraine Hansberrys A Raisin in the Sun. Although the two novels are very different, the stories and characters share many likenesses. Death of a Salesman concerns a family’s difficulty in dealing with unrealized dreams. A Raisin in the Sun focuses on a familys struggle to agree on a common dream. In each of these stories, there are conflicts between the dreams that each character is struggling to attain. In Death of a Salesman, Happy and Biff are uncertain of where they are in life, and only reach out for the simple,†¦show more content†¦One of Willy Lomans biggest fears is everything falling apart. He wants to be successful so that his family will never worry. He works hard, but things go downhill despite his hard work; he is sixty years old and tired to death. Willy Loman is an untrustworthy character, because he is half-senile. In the same conversation with his wife Linda, he proclaims, Biff is a lazy bum! then says, Theres one thing about Biff- hes not lazy. But his craziness says more than that of any other sane character in the story. Willy Loman wants the American dream, and says to Biff, Be liked and you will never want. If youre well-liked, thats all you need. He wants his boys to make something great of themselves, possibly which would redeem them for abandoning Willy, which haunts him daily. Willy Loman only wants to die the death of a salesman, in his sl ippers. Symbolism played a key role in Death of a Salesman. Willys brother, Ben, symbolizes a dissolved dream that Willy constantly looks back to, remembering the opportunity he had to come out of the African jungle with something tangible for his boys future. Those diamonds could have made him rich. Ben also shed light on Willys father, who played the flute. Willy longingly confided in Ben, ...Dad left when I was such a baby and I never had a chance to talk to him and I still feel- kind of temporary about myself...Ben, how should I teach them? And whenever Willy Loman isShow MoreRelatedDeveloping Management Skills404131 Words   |  1617 PagesSUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL 24 Diagnostic Survey and Exercises 24 Personal Assessment of Management Skills (PAMS) 24 What Does It Take to Be an Effective Manager? 28 SSS Software In-Basket Exercise 30 SCORING KEY AND COMPARISON DATA 42 Personal Assessment of Management Skills 42 Scoring Key 42 Comparison Data 42 What Does It Take to Be an Effective M anager? 43 SSS Software In-Basket Exercise 43 PART I 1 PERSONAL SKILLS 44 45 DEVELOPING SELF-AWARENESS SKILL ASSESSMENT 46 Diagnostic Surveys forRead MoreMarketing Management 14th Edition Test Bank Kotler Test Bank173911 Words   |  696 Pagestrains his companys sales force to go after the consumer. He repeatedly asks his team to bear in mind the essential fact that it is the sales teams responsibility to rouse the consumers interest and make him feel that he needs the product. A true salesman is one who can convert an indifferent consumer walking into the store into a new customer. Johnson believes in the ________ concept. A) product B) production C) selling D) marketing E) social responsibility Answer: C Page Ref: 18 Objective:

Immigration And The United States - 965 Words

Immigration is what shapes the picture of today’s present-day world. Traveling from country to country for trading and other necessities or personal reasons has been popular since historic times. Immigration means the one way movement of people to a specific country or place. People, or immigrants, move out of their native country for numerous reasons. The aspiration for a better life and future and improved employment opportunities are the key driving forces for immigrants to migrate. The United States is no less than immigrants coming from diverse parts of the world. Because of this, the United States implemented immigration laws and policies. The United States immigration policy has endured great change since the era of the 20th century. There are several reasons that have subsidized to this change in policy. These reasons being poverty, lack of jobs and political problems. The United States has altered its immigration policy various times in the past century but the motive s for immigration have stayed mostly the same. Immigration has continuously played an essential role in American History. The United States current immigration policy continues to be the utmost open immigration policy in the world. Once certain states approved immigration laws after the Civil War, the Supreme Court in 1875 stated that the regulation of immigration is a federal responsibility. The immigration service was then established in 1891 to deal with the vast rise in immigration which took placeShow MoreRelatedImmigration And The United States986 Words   |  4 PagesImmigration in the United States continues to increase rapidly year by year. According to an analysis of monthly Census Bureau data by the Center for Immigration Studies, the immigration population in the United States, both legal and illegal, hit a record of 42.1 million in the second quarter of this year, an increase of 1.7 million since the same quarter of 2014 (CIS.org). Clearly, Immigrants make up a large part of the population in the United States, and for most immigrants, migrating to theRead MoreImmigration Of The United States1399 Words   |  6 Pages Michelle Faed English 126 Immigration in the United States The United States of America, being a country established by immigrants, is known all over the world as the land of great opportunities. People from all walks of life travelled across the globe, taking a chance to find a better life for them and their family. Over the years, the population of immigrants has grown immensely, resulting in the currently controversial issue of illegal immigration. Illegal immigrants are the people whoRead MoreImmigration And The United States965 Words   |  4 Pages Immigration is a highly controversial and big problem in the United States today. â€Å"While some characterize our immigration crisis as solely an issue of the 11 to 12 million unauthorized immigrants living in this country, our problems extend beyond the number of undocumented people to a broader range of issues. The lack of a comprehensive federal solution has created a slew of lopsided, enforcement-only initiatives that have cost the country billions of dollars while failing to end un authorizedRead MoreImmigration On The United States1302 Words   |  6 PagesImmigration Rights in the U.S. Immigration has occurred in the U.S. for for many years. Some say it’s the foundation of our country. America is the country where people leave their own country to live. People would leave due to mistreatment, hunger issues or job opportunities. America is known for starting over or accomplishing dreams, so immigrants travel over to follow those dreams. People emigrate from one country to another for a variety of complex reasons. Some are forced to move, due to conflictRead MoreThe Immigration Of The United States1711 Words   |  7 PagesThe vast majority of people living in the United States are descendants of immigrants, and yet majority of them are against them. It is quickly forgotten that America was built on immigrants that wanted a new life. A life free from harsh government, and the freedom from forced religion. The original settlers were immigrants that stole this land; immigrants continued to come for years. It is not a newly constructed concept that immigrants have always been a problem, ask any Native American. One usedRead MoreImmigration Of The United States1064 Words   |  5 Pages Camarota (2007, p.1), director of the Immigration Studies Center, reports there are 1.6 million documented and undocumented migrants take up residence in the United States every year. Camarota goes on to say that the immigrants occupy one-eighth of the total population who settled in the U.S. The flood of aliens, to a significant degree, hinders the development of the United States. Therefore, the issues which relate to immigration must not be neglected, and the government should keep the numberRead MoreImmigration And The United States Essay1377 Words   |  6 Pages Immigration has been a large conversation topic for such a long time in our country. We have worked on policies for immigration, and have made changes to them throughout the duration of our country’s existence. This topic is always worth mentioning and important, but has become a bigger topic once again due to presidential elections and the conversations being had about immigration from said elections. It is not necessarily easily seen if the concern with immigration is who is here legally or limitingRead MoreImmigration : The United States1087 Words   |  5 PagesThe United States is a popular and powerful which many people admire. It is very true that the country prospect and is more enrich. Opening the border might improve the economy or can impact the job market for American citizens. It is the jobs of American citizens to be given more to this illegal immigrant. I believe the U.S. borders should remain closed. While it is clear that opening the borders can have benefits, I believe it is more important to keep jobs available for Americans. In my opinionRead MoreImmigration Of The United States1565 Words   |  7 PagesA native of Mexico, Gonzalez came to the United States using a visa, to visit family members and in 1994, police convicted Gonzalez of the abduction and rape of a Waukegan, Illinois woman. During his conviction his attorney, Vanessa Potkin, addressed that at twenty years old, Gonzalez spoke very little English, had no criminal record, and yet the police wanted to pin the crime on him. Twenty years later, DNA from the crime cleared him of both charges, and Gonzalez is now threatened with deportationRead MoreThe Immigration Of The United States1632 Words   |  7 PagesFrench and European to settle in the New World. Since the colonial era, America has seen a wave of immigrants migrate in search of freedom and equality. Is this the same immigration today? Nearly 11.6 million immigrants from Mexico reside in the U.S. Today Immigration has a significant impact on many aspects of life in the United States, from the workforce and the classroom to communities across the country. Not all immigrants come to America legally whether as naturalized citizens, legal permanent residents

Evaluating the Role of the Media in the British General Election 2010 Free Essays

Critically evaluate the role of the media in the British General Election 2010. â€Å"Media should keep people informed about public affairs so that individuals are adequately briefed when they take part in the process of self government. † (Curran, James 2005). We will write a custom essay sample on Evaluating the Role of the Media in the British General Election 2010 or any similar topic only for you Order Now The role of the media, as Curran as explained is a supposed to be a way of allowing individuals to think for themselves, having their own opinions and ideas about the news and information that is given to them through different medias. So for my essay I will be focusing on the way in which the media, mainly T.V, allowed the general public to think for themselves during the British General election, mainly focusing on the ‘Alternative General Election’ which was aired on the same night as the Election, on Channel 4 and on the political advertising used for each party and the ways in which the media use emotion to sway the general public. Television is a very powerful media form, as â€Å"more than 90% of the UK TV homes already have digital† (The Guardian Online 2010) shows that we are relatively dependant on having television in our day-to-day lives.Television as a media form is the most powerful source of information for the average person, as the news is on hourly on a large variety of channels, reporting news from all over the world. There are even specific channels that viewers can tune into to receive specialist television programs, like BBC Parliament, where viewers can watch the House of Commons live from the comfort of their own homes. The BBC hosted the British General Election on Thursday the 6th of May 2010, and on the same evening, for those who weren’t as eager to watch the real General Election, could tune into Channel 4’s ‘Alternative Election Night’.Channel 4’s aim was to make the Election a slightly more enjoyable event for the general public, as they say on the Channel 4 website â€Å"the show promises satire and sass, minus the staid political swing-o-meters†. Hosted by â€Å"comedy enthusiasts† Charlie Brooker, David Mitchell, Jimmy Carr and Lauren Laverne, is a constructive way of enticing the audience, using presenters that they have heard of and enjoy watching from other programs they have been in. Unlike the General Election,Channel 4 have focused mainly on the comedy aspect of the Election, also by using a live audience and intercepting the program with specially recorded shows, such as an Election special of ‘Come Dine with Me’ featuring Politian’s such as Edwina Curry and Derek Hatton. Advertising is another form of the media in which information and ideas are transmitted to an audience. Advertising unlike television to more so used for persuading and transforming the ideas and emotions of the public. Sabato (1981) once said â€Å"the increase in negative adverts attribute to the proprietary research that shows negative messages have powerful effects† (Biocca pg. 45), which relates to the ways political adverting was used in the 2010 General Elections. For example, the Labour party released a poster of David Cameron’s face (leader of the Conservative party) computerized onto the body of Jean Simmons from â€Å"Life on Mars† and â€Å"Ashes to Ashes† to present a 1979 government threat, but on the other hand this poster is speaking out to the Conservatives as when the government was last Conservative was when Margaret Thatcher was Prime Minister. On the other hand it also relates to the Labour party insisting that they vote Labour, or the Margaret Thatcher days will be upon them again.Political advertising and Personal Relations go hand in hand to use the emotion of the public as a tactic to win over individuals. â€Å"Lord Young is reputed to have said that ‘Government programmes are like cornflakes. If they are not marketed, they will not sell’ The phrase, though not profound, expressed will ministers marketing and campaigning techniques to package polices and bring them to the attention of the public† (Franklin, Bob 1994) Therefore showing that personal relations along with marketing and advertising don’t seem to mind what they have to do as long as they get the end result.As Kaid mentions in ‘Political Advertising’, â€Å"Hart (2000) suggests that political ads are ‘effusive’ and full of emotional logic. He cautions that in fact, â€Å"†¦one must never underestimate the importance of that which advertising most reliably delivers – political emotion†. † (Kaid 2004). By using emotional advertising the companies and more importantly political parties are able to sway the public into believing what they find emotio nally satisfying, â€Å"commercials that contain both negative and positive emotional messages, are remembered significantly better than either negative-only or positive-only commercials.In addition, the single-emotion commercials remembered significantly better that neutral or non-emotional commercials† (Biocca 1991). In 2010, during and before the General Election, there where many poster around the UK trying to encourage the general public to vote for which ever party they were most influenced by. There were many posters for this year’s General Elections, and the main theme of 2010 Elections was to use the opposing party leader in their campaigns and try to manipulate their words and also in some cases put words into their mouths.For my first example, I have chosen the campaign poster for the Conservative party, they have featured a head and shoulders image of David Cameron with the text next to him saying, â€Å"We can’t go on like this. I’ll cut the deficit, not the NHS†. When I looked into the other posters from the General Elections, I ten discovered the use of using the other party leaders as the main attraction of the poster, but then only to knock them down by using a quote or fact about them to contradict the poster itself.For example, I found the most effecti ve posters were that of the Conservative party, as they used a photograph of Gordon Brown’s face, next to a bold statement â€Å"I caused record youth unemployment. Let me do it again†. I found this poster more to the point, and it was a lot very obvious what the Conservative party was trying to do, and honestly for me, it works, I think if I had of voted at all this would probably would have swayed me against the Labour party.Gordon Brown’s true colours where presented when he left a Sky News microphone on after a confrontation from an old lady called Gillian Duffy. It was caught on tape that he called her a â€Å"bigoted woman†. If Brown had of known about the microphone he wouldn’t have commented like he did, and we as the public would not have known about his actual feelings towards the woman and neither would she. Because the report of this comment was circulated at such speed, Brown felt it right to go round to Duffy’s house and apologise to his for his comment.The reason for the confrontation was that Mrs. Duffy was in fact a long time Labour supporter who had challenged Brown about issues such as immigration from Eastern Europe an d then about the national debt in the UK. After this event, many articles broke out in newspapers and online, for example the BBC News website published a article called â€Å"Election 2010:Leaders prepare for TV debate on economy†, with the subtitle of, â€Å"Gordon Brown has said he is determined to focus on the economy ahead of the last live TV debate, a day after he was overheard calling a voter â€Å"bigoted†. What is interesting is that the fact that Brown has made a slight comment about a woman had been more important than the actual reason Brown was even on camera that day, for the TV debate. One reading that I found particularly interesting and in relation to media and the General Elections was written by Angela Phillips. She is focused on the journalists and their sources online, she talks about how â€Å"the relationship between journalists and their sources is central to any claim that the news media may make to a role within the Habermasian ‘public sphere’†.This extract explore s the reasons why and how the media have tried to relate to their key audience within the general public. She later goes on to speak about Silverstone (1988) and his ideas about the â€Å"story teller working to re-align cultural ties and allegiances through establishment and re-enforcing of cultural myth, it is through their choice of relationships and prioritization of information that they seek to reflect, or indeed to determine, the political and cultural agenda of the moment†. Phillips, 2009. pp. 87) So they are saying that journalists have used their status to get in touch with people who have the information that they need, and are willing to jeopardize their priorities if something better comes along; â€Å"cultural agenda of the moment†. To conclude, the role of the media during the British General Elections of 2010 has been the most powerful form of publishing and informing the nation of the in’s and out’s of British Politics.The tabloids have printed articles using the general public as there target zone, to print, on occasion, fad articles about opinions and the events, the Sky News microphone that was left on Gordon Brown, and managed to record him insulting a member of the general public and of course, the new room where the news is put together, and presented live to us at home, allowing us to indulge in news when ever we wish, well at hourly intervals throughout the day. Not forgetting one of the most important new forms of media, World Hav e Your Say on BBC radio†¦not only for the new bulletins of the day, but also or other members of the public to have their say about the news in question. With out the media, we would not be as well informed about what goes on around us, and we need to know what is going on around us for our own safety, and more importantly our knowledge.Bibliography http://news. bbc. co. uk/1/hi/8649012. stmhttp://news. bbc. co. uk/1/hi/uk_politics/election_2010/8650546. stmhttp://www. channel4. com/programmes/channel-4s-alternative-election-night/episode-guide/series-1/episode-1http://www. guardian. co. uk/media/2010/may/04/thinkbox-television-viewinghttp://en. wikipedia. rg/wiki/Walter_Lippmannhttp://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/United_Kingdom_general_election How to cite Evaluating the Role of the Media in the British General Election 2010, Papers

Weapons of Mass Destruction free essay sample

The first chemical weapon, the second a biological, the third is classified as a radioactive weapon; and each of these weapons are capable of killing hundreds of thousands. So whats the difference between these different kinds of weapons? First, the chemical weapon of mass destruction. The chemical weapon has been around since the start of World War I. During World War I the U. S. created mustard gas, a gas that was tasteless, colorless, and odorless; but would cause giant blisters on the skin and lungs that would eventually enlarge until they took over the whole body and the person would die. Throughout the years the U. S. was able to concentrate the power of this chemical weapon and make them more precise. Now, small scale chemical weapons are used on a daily basis. We use tear gas for crowd control, laughing gas to knock someone out, and many different types of anesthesia and crowd control devices that are considered small scale chemical-weapons of mass destruction (WMD). The second type of weapon is a biological weapon. A biological weapon make use of many biological agents, including bacteria, viruses, and toxins. These different materials can now be concentrated and used to wipe out whole nations. In Israel and Africa biological weapons are used on a daily bases. People will take a dead or diseased animal and use it to foul up a well so that when people drink out of that well, they get sick, and it spreads throughout villages killing he all the villagers before it can be stopped. In today’s society biological weapons are becoming less popular with the U. S. but more popular with other nations. Syria in the 20s were trying to isolate the virus small pox to conceal it into a weapon. It took them six years to finally develop the missile, but when they were finished they had enough small pox disease to wipe out the entire world twice over. The third classification of weapon is a radioactive weapon. Radioactive weapons were created in 1943 when a scientist was studying a chemical weapon. The scientist said that the chemical weapon gave off a deadly material that would destroy objects and render land useless unless the land is torn out and replaced with new soil. The scientist died before he could discover anymore. He died of radiation poisoning. The U. S. has drones that are constantly patrolling the air looking for anything suspicious and reporting it. The drones use lasers to help them take a picture with their thermal heat cameras that help us to find WMD’s. Most weapons can easily be detected, but the hardest one to detect is a biological weapon of mass destruction. Biological weapons are difficult to identify because they use microscopic bacteria. Lasers and ionization can now be used to automatically find the bacteria in a given sample. Analysis of the bacteria present can alert the inspector to the presence of common bioterrorism agents like anthrax. Handheld devices are carried by United Nations weapons inspectors. This brick-sized machine can analyze a sample and tell whether is contains deadly bacteria or not. This process used to take a whole lab of equipment. (Drones). As you can see, the U. S. has an extremely reliable detection services that can easily detect a WMD. We have x-rays, gamma imaging, drones, and powerful lasers that can detect the presence of a nuclear weapon that could kill millions. All in all the U. S. has created many different resources that could save millions of lives with teams ready to deploy on sight of a sighted WMD: constant aircrafts that are patrolling the skies, and very advanced technology that can search out any type of weapon; whether it be launched or is still being transported, we will find it. Although it is true that many other countries have successfully created weapons of mass destruction that could destroy the U. S. , this is the reason the war in Iraq started was because of nuclear weapons. However, other countries alone having weapons of mass destruction would not be enough to harm us because we are prepared. In conclusion, even though there are other countries with weapons that could destroy the U. S. , we are prepared enough that it would not pose a very big threat because it could easily be destroyed. Though many people believe that the U. S. is not ready to defend itself against weapons of mass destruction; there are many precautions in place including: missile targeting systems, patrolling aircrafts, and teams ready to deploy on sight of a WMD that has been fired. The U. S. has trained teams of military men and women trained to react in a situation involving a weapon of mass destruction. The military only accept the ones that are able to pass the test with one hundred percent accuracy. The men and women are ready any time and any day to react to the threat of a weapon of mass destruction. All over the United States there are Air Force units patrolling the sky and watching for anything out of the ordinary such as weapons of mass destruction. The pilots that are accepted into the U. S. Civil Air Patrol go through vigorous training to make them aware and ready to be thrown into action and have to adjust to a situation and solve a problem. They go through many challenging tests and advanced training to make sure that they can protect the American people. With all of the busy men and women in this country we need something that will never tire or fail to work. That is why missile targeting systems were created so they could keep a constant protective eye on the American people to keep them safe from any harm of a nuclear weapon.

The attributes to create a good film Essay Example For Students

The attributes to create a good film Essay Then the creature is dropped down into a box shaped as a coffin, which gives us the idea of death, he uses a coffin shaped box because the connotations of coffins are death, and when the experiment starts he is dead. Victor then thrusts through small holes long pins that look like swords. As he puts the pins in we see quick edits of the creatures body moving under the pain of the pins even though he is not alive, this creates sympathy for the creature, also as the pins are thrust into the creature Branagh ups the sound and sound effects to a more scary and critical sound. We will write a custom essay on The attributes to create a good film specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now Then we see the tank fill up with amniotic fluid and the eels are put in and then we see Victor run to the mains supply and connect it to the box. We then see quick shots of the creatures body as it is going through immense pain which are very good at creating suspense and sympathy for the audience and creature as the audience are keen to know the outcome of the creation, and whether it has worked or not. Victor jumps up onto the box and looks through the porthole and this is the first time we see the creatures face, but still when we see the face it is distorted because of the amniotic fluid so again we are still being held in suspense. The creatures eyes open and Victor becomes ecstatic at this and quickly runs to close off the electricity going into the creatures body and when he runs back to the box as this is happening the build up of suspense becomes bigger as we wait to see if the creature is still alive. As he looks over the porthole he sees the eyes of the creature have closed and his head drops and he walks away, at this point all the suspense that was in this scene has gone, the music has quietened and has left us with a solitary room with one person walking away. The next scene is very interesting as Branagh uses hands as a sign of life. As Victor walks away there is a loud bang which creates suspense and tension. He looks around and we see the hand moving in the porthole. He uses a hand because we normally associate the movement of hands with life. So Branagh is symbolising the birth of this creature by using its hands. After this the creature starts to move wildly in the box Victor rushes over to the box to open the top, as he open the top the top flies way on the other side of the laboratory leaving amniotic fluid sprayed everywhere. The creature is still inside the box and we see Victor creeping up to the box; this creates suspense for the audience because we want to know what is going to happen. As Victor looks over the edge of the box the creature springs up at him and they both fall to the floor. We then see the close up shot of when they are holding hands trying to stand up in the amniotic fluid. We see a close up of the hands clenched together; this creates sympathy for both Victor and the creature. The hands clasped together gives the impression of love and care and respect for each other. Whereas in the Whale version we see the creature wrapped up in clothes when the experiment is about to commence, around the laboratory we see a lot of electrical equipment which makes the experiment seem more real this is the director using the mis-en-scene to its best ability again. .uc75d268ad4e81495bd4e83be77015e52 , .uc75d268ad4e81495bd4e83be77015e52 .postImageUrl , .uc75d268ad4e81495bd4e83be77015e52 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .uc75d268ad4e81495bd4e83be77015e52 , .uc75d268ad4e81495bd4e83be77015e52:hover , .uc75d268ad4e81495bd4e83be77015e52:visited , .uc75d268ad4e81495bd4e83be77015e52:active { border:0!important; } .uc75d268ad4e81495bd4e83be77015e52 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .uc75d268ad4e81495bd4e83be77015e52 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .uc75d268ad4e81495bd4e83be77015e52:active , .uc75d268ad4e81495bd4e83be77015e52:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .uc75d268ad4e81495bd4e83be77015e52 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .uc75d268ad4e81495bd4e83be77015e52 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .uc75d268ad4e81495bd4e83be77015e52 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .uc75d268ad4e81495bd4e83be77015e52 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .uc75d268ad4e81495bd4e83be77015e52:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .uc75d268ad4e81495bd4e83be77015e52 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .uc75d268ad4e81495bd4e83be77015e52 .uc75d268ad4e81495bd4e83be77015e52-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .uc75d268ad4e81495bd4e83be77015e52:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: The Pursuit of Happyness SummaryAlso to add to the amount of horror in the film the sound effects used are thunder and lightning, this helps also create suspense, because when we hear thunder and lightning it creates suspense because we always wait for the bang and in the birth scene we are waiting for something to happen. And also by the clothes Henry is wearing suggests that the experiment is very serious, as he is wearing a white lab coat and he is clean, shaven beard, his hair is gelled back unlike Victors scruffy look. The creature is strapped into the stretcher chair and is slowly raised up through the hole in the roof where the lightning is, when the creature gets to the top it is held suspended out of sight and is hit by lightning. The creature is then gently lowered down and is laying there; the camera then zooms in onto the creatures hand, and as it moves Henry begins to say, its alive! This again tells us about the hand being used as a symbol to show life. We then see Henry drop onto his knees and the scene closes.

Australian Wheat Board

Australian Wheat Board Australian Wheat Board Australian Wheat Board (AWB) Limited is a grain marketing organization based in Australia. It had been a government body since its commencement in 1937 until 1 July 1999 when it was handed over to the Australian wheat growers. AWB is organized into three divisions: rural services, financial services, and the commodity management unit. In this arrangement, the rural services division supplies the products to the retail stores that distribute the commodities to the rural areas of Australia while the commodity management provides the products to the global customers in more than 50 countries. Even though this organization has got various ethical standards to be followed by its employees, it has also faced challenges from the corruption scandals which occurred in the mid 2000s (Botterill 41). The specific fraud issue that affected the organization is corruption scandals which took place in 2005. It took the form of bribery and kickbacks which were paid to Saddam Hussein, the former Iraqi leader. The fraud occurred in 2005 when the company was alleged to ignore the United Nations sanctions and the Australian law which forbids such actions. This companys action was meant to help to retain the commodity exchange business between Iraq and the company. The illegal action resulted into a 230 million dollars compensation for the damages caused to the North American farmers when they lost their market due to corruption. The organization also lost its monopoly status again the management was changed. At this particular time, Andrew Lindberg was the managing director and was fined 100000 U.S dollars. while Paul Ingleby was the chief financial officer, who later paid 10000 U.S dollars as fine. Another fraud the company faced was that of obtaining financial advantage through deception and giving of misleading information to the auditors in the year 2000 by the then AWB chairman, Clinton Condon. The fraud, which also made the organization to realize a loss of 12.5 million, started when two employees, Mark Timleris and Claire Horsman falsified some contracts and fabricated reports to the banks. They also engaged the organization in speculative foreign exchange trades so as to hide the company losses for several years before they told Clinton in the year 2000. However, Clinton went ahead and signed the audited financial statements in 2001 despite him being aware that they were faulty. Both the two employees and Clinton were therefore put into jail. In all these scandals, it is evident that the ethical standards breached are the requirement to avoid any financial deception and the need to report any to report any form of ethics violation as was done by the two employees and Cli nton. Also the managing director failed to honour the market guiding standards (Botterill 113). Concerning the making of ethical decisions within the organization, the management of the company has come up with various ideas for realizing the best code of ethics whenever an ethical problem has been realized. Its first step is the identification of the problem. In this case, the management commits itself to establish the exact ethical problems which need to be tackled. Thereafter, it analyses the code of ethics relevant to that particular problem in order to find out whether there is any drawback in the standards (Botterill 458). The management then determines the nature and dimensions of the dilemma in order to find out the extent of damage caused by the subject problem. Various problem solving actions are then proposed by the management to exploit all the possibilities. Thereafter, the possible courses of actions are evaluated and the best one is selected to solve the ethical problem. Finally, the chosen course of action is tested, evaluated, and implemented when the organizat ion is sure that it will give an ethical solution to the current ethical problem (Botterill 459). The Australian Wheat Board operations are also guided by the various rules and regulations which are categorized into two components. These components are the business practices and the personal conduct of the staff. The staff members behaviors are guided by various rules which include the requirement to regularly read the codes of conduct so as to continually familiarize themselves with any change. The employees are also required to comply with the code of conduct and seek for clarification from the human resource department on the scope of such guiding principles. Employees are also given the responsibility to report any form of ethics violation by any party within the organization. They are also required to comply and support any investigation involving the breach of code and the companys policies and procedures (Lindberg 3). The organizations code of conducts further states that the employees may also not accept incentives or inducements from organizations, since such incentives may be compromising to the employees work obligations. However, the company has also stated the circumstances under which an employee can accept such gifts. For instance, a gift or benefit can only be accepted when they value less than 300 dollars. But in cases where the amount is greater and its rejection may imply negatively to the company, they can be accepted after notifying the managing director. Emphasis is also put on ensuring that the employees loyalty to the other staff members and management does not compromise the appropriate standards of ethical behavior and courses of actions (Lindberg 5). Lindberg, (10) further states that the management of the company is also required to protect the employees from any victimization for whistle blowing over misconducts by any member of the both the junior and senior staff. Additionally, it requires treating all the employees without any form of discrimination. Finally, the companys employees should not take the advantage of private information, as it can negatively affect the organization. On the other hand, business practices codes of conduct are the rules guiding the behavior of the people acting on behalf of the company. These practices include the avoidance of deception and unfair practices against other stakeholders. The employees should also practice honesty and good faith while dealing with other stakeholders. Employees are also required to respect their obligations in taking care of the AWB assets, resources, and confidential information (Lindberg 11). Purchasing of contracts is also required to be conducted in ethical manner. It involves making arrangements in accordance to the AWB tender requirements which emphasizes fairness, equality, and the clear statement of the contract requirements while handling the potential contractors. Finally, all the employees are required to maintain the professional standards of dressing and general presentation (Lindberg 16). Conclusion As demonstrated in the Australian Wheat Board, it is evident that ethics should be observed in every organization for a smooth running and for a positive image.

Latin America's Economic Progress Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Latin America's Economic Progress - Essay Example There is a persistent problem of political instability in the region. Since the independence of Latin America, the political environment has not been stable enough to facilitate economic development. Dictatorship of military officials has long controlled the region and this was one of the constraints in the way of economic stability. The economic factors such as rate of inflation, rate of economic growth and income distribution, all pointed towards a deteriorating economic condition. Numerous economic reforms have been taken by the government but they have not been applied properly due to the prevailing political instability. According to a study conducted by Luisa Blanco and Robin Grier within the period between 1971 and 2000, in 18 Latin American countries there were 451 political assassinations, 217 riots, and 113 crises that threatened to destabilize the sitting government (Blanco & Grier, 1). Apart from Costa Rica, Colombia and Venezuella, all the other countries in the region w itnessed severe political instability. Regional Disparities The independence of the region widened the regional disparities and this is also one of the reasons behind lack of economic growth in the region. ... Resistance to Change One of the reasons behind the failure of economic reforms is the prevailing resistance to change in the region. Any kind of change is considered to be hostile by the population of the region therefore it is not accepted completely. In order to facilitate economic growth, there are a number of factors that need to be changed in the region but due to the prevailing resistance to change in the region any modification in the economic policies or any introduction of reforms is not implemented properly. The development of strategy is done but the implementation phase is the real problem in the region. The restraining forces overpower the driving forces therefore the economic reforms are not implemented and the economic growth remains at a disappointing pace. Lack of Industrial Development It has been said that the Latin American region is rich in natural resources but still the region has been unable to reach the heights of economic development it should have reached b y now. The natural resources held by the region are benefiting the developed countries more rather than the Latin American region itself. This is due to the lack of industrial development in the region (Llosa, 17). In the absence of industries to process the raw natural resources, the region has been unable to produce finished goods. Instead, the Latin American region exports the natural resources it possesses to other developed countries at low prices and the revenue generated by such exports is not commendable. If the region had its own production facilities that put the locally produced natural resources to use, the economic condition of the region would have been different. With domestically produced affordable raw material, the industries would not only

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Ethical Dilemmas - Assignment Example Due to her experience and her reputation on evaluation, Fiona is the best person to deal with the case as she will combine her prowess with the interests of her department and come up with a sound decision. Ethical behavior is not so much a matter of following principles as of balancing competing principles (Stake & Mabry, 1998). I would ensure that ethical values are observed and that they are balanced with the commissioner’s goals. I would critically assess the Human services program, how funds are used, whether there are areas where funds were wasted and if some projects are not benefitting the program. I would then moderate the usage of funds in the projects, ensure that all the resources are used effectively, and get rid of projects that are not important to the program. As a result, I would have cut back on the meaningless projects, retained useful projects, and ensured that there was effective use of resources. Fiona’s benefits after the evaluation process include job security during the commissioner’s period in office. There may also be other advantages such as salary increments and more jobs from the commissioner’s office. She will also able to make decisions based on her principles and the needs of the branch even if she is expected to cut back on the budget eventually. The implications include judgment from her team who may think that she is being influenced when making decisions. They may not trust her decisions in future. She will also start questioning her principles and wondering if she made the right decision. The agency shall benefit because its most urgent needs shall be met during the budget cuts. However, program cuts may lead to the loss of jobs because it may get rid of some projects that would have been important to the program in the long

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Air Pollution a Silent Killer to Children - Essay Example The control group was made up of children who died from causes associated with respiratory complications. The controls were pair matched to the cases in respect to gender, year of birth, and year of death after they had been selected randomly from the set of possible controls for each case. The results were that, cancer cases had considerable higher rate of 87.3% of occurrence for those residing in urban municipalities than that of controls of 80.5%. They further revealed that, the crude odds ratios were considerably higher than 1.0 for the groups with high levels of nitrogen dioxide exposure in their residential municipality. This implies that, there was a considerable trend toward an increased risk of childhood leukemia with rising nitrogen dioxide concentrations. The findings of this study are consistent with previous studies as reflected in the problem statement. This study offers further evidence of a relationship between exposure to traffic exhaust emissions and the risk of childhood leukemia. The findings of this study call further investigation of the role of traffic air pollution in childhood leukemia.

Physical And Chemical Properties Of Bamboo Environmental Sciences Essay

Physical And Chemical Properties Of Bamboo Environmental Sciences Essay Chapter 1 has been drafted in a manner that it is to draw the context of this dissertation. It defines the locality, and has an insight into the North East Indian Bamboo industry. It attempts to justify the use of bamboo as a primary construction material in the area, due to its abundant availability. It tries to highlight the faults in the current and traditional methods prevalent in the region which are a hindrance to bamboo being more often used for construction. The dissertation research looks into gathering substantial proofs to support the hypothesis which comes after understanding the problems of the area. 1.1: Bamboo Distribution 1.1.1 World Wide Distribution Bamboo is a plant belonging to the true grass family Poaceae, subfamily Bambusoideae, tribe Bambuseae. In bamboo, the internodal regions of the stem are hollow and the vascular bundles in the cross section are scattered throughout the stem instead of in a cylindrical arrangement. Bamboo is a native to five continents around the world : Asia, Africa, South America, North America and Australia. It is found at all elevations from the coast of the Philippines up to 15,000 feet above sea level in the eastern Andes. Bamboo grows in the tropical, subtropical and temperate regions of all continents except Europe, geographically divided into 3 zones: the Asia- Pacific zone(around 700 species), the America zone (around 400 species) and the African zone (around 50 species). There are totally 70 genera and 1200 species of bamboo all over the world that have been recorded, with some more in undeveloped regions to be discovered and identified. Over 2.5 billion people worldwide use or trade in bamboo worth 4.5 billion US Dollar every year (INBAR 1999). 1.1.2 South East Asia Bamboo is found in abundance in South East Asia, the tropical scenario, temperature and soil conditions in the area widely promotes the growth of bamboo in the area. China is known as the Kingdom of Bamboo, with around 500 bamboo species native here, naturally distributed in 16 provinces and 1 municipal city, among which Yunnan takes up 220 species due to its diversified climate and geographical characteristics. Due to its abundance in availability, from the starting of time bamboo as such has been a part of all South East Asian traditions. Bamboo is an inseparable part of south east Asian culture, medicine , music, construction and food. In construction, bamboo provides pillars, floors, walls, doors, window frames, rafters, room separators, ceilings and roofs. The meeting houses of some New Guinea villages are 20 m tall and more than 40 m long, with huge bamboo poles set deep into the ground and bent over in the shape of Gothic arches to carry the thickly thatched roof, creating some of the boldest structures built with minimal equipment and technology. Japanese houses are far more sophisticated, but are still typically built of wood, paper and bamboo. Bamboo is used to make guard houses in rice fields, roadside food shops, hot houses for growing mushrooms, smoke houses for drying tobacco or rubber, store houses for rice and other produce, and livestock sheds. Bamboo is also used to make pegs which replace nails. Bamboo scaffolding finds extensive use in Asian cities, even on very tall buildings. Bamboo is used throughout rural Asia to build bridges of many types and sizes; they can be as long as 25 m, often involvin g sophisticated technology as suspension bridges, but also with simple technology in the form of pontoon bridges (Kurz 1876). Many villagers use bamboo shingles, with the large stems split in half and laid with the convex and concave sides alternately facing upwards, with their edges overlapping. In coastal areas, roofs often are made of thatch woven from nipa palm around long slivrers of bamboo. Location Bamboo Area (10,000 hectare) Bamboo Species China 500.00 500 India 400.00 136 Burma 217.00 90 Thailand 81.00 60 Bangladesh 60.00 30 Cambodia 28.70 Vietnam 13.00 92 Japan 13.80 230 Indonesia 6.00 30 Malaysia 2.00 44 Philippines 2.00 55 Korea 0.80 13 Sri Lanka 0.20 14 In countries like China, Japan and Korea, bamboo also is a frequently used popular motive for poets and painters. Philosophers and literateurs took bamboo as a symbol for a good personality: making progress; modest; straight (Wang 2000)  ¿Ã‚ ½ there, bamboo is not only a useful material for their everyday life, but also has already been developed into a so called  ¿Ã‚ ½bamboo culture ¿Ã‚ ½ through the long time of cohabitation with people. 1.1.3 India Why North East India? India is home to about 45% of the world ¿Ã‚ ½s bamboo production. There are 125 species of bamboo in India spread across 18 genera. According to a survey by BMTPC (Building Materials and Technology Promotion Council) India produces about 13.5 Million Metric Tons of bamboo annually from 9.6 Million Hectares land area (used only for bamboo plantation). Sympodial bamboo consists of 67% of growing stock and monopodial bamboo comprises of 20% of growing stock. Out of this amount the North Eastern part of India alone has the gross share of 66% of the total production. So, it can be said that potentially this region has the widest range climate and topography suitable for growth of bamboo. Distribution of Bamboo in North East India (Area in sq km * ) S. No. State Area under Bamboos Area under Muli Bamboo Area under other Bamboo Spp. Area expected to flower Area accessible (Flowered) 1. Arunachal Pradesh 4590 100.00 2. Assam 8213 2950 1456 3. Manipur 3692 1592 400 4. Meghalaya 3100 400 2700 400 200 5. Mizoram 6646 5100 1500 5100 1200 6. Nagaland 0758 250 250 7. Tripura 2397 960 1437 2397 300 Bamboo is a vital element of Indias North Eastern region comprising the states of Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim and Tripura. Bamboo has been a traditional material of construction that has been used in the north east region from quiet some time. In Borneo and the Naga Hills of India, large communal houses that may be 100 m long are built of bamboo. In Arunachal Pradesh, large suspension bridges have been made out of bamboo, In Assam houses made of bamboo are the typical house type in villages which stand the test of floods and earthquakes in the region. Bamboo is the material of choice when it comes to arts and craft in the region. A number of traditional musical instruments are also made from bamboo.  ¿Ã‚ ½The virtues of bamboo are not new, but the interest in it is, ¿Ã‚ ½ says Antonios Levissianos, UNIDO senior industrial development officer.  ¿Ã‚ ½Bamboo is no longer seen as a poor man ¿Ã‚ ½s timber, it is growing to be the most promising substitute for wood and there is great scope for further generating rural employment. India ¿Ã‚ ½s current demand for bamboo is an estimated 27 million tones. However, only 50 per cent of that demand can be met because of lack of facilities for value addition and transportation. ¿Ã‚ ½ 1.2: Why Bamboo? Bamboo is one of the foremost sustainable naturally available material that has been used in construction since ages. Bamboo is the traditional material of choice that has been in use in the North East region of India since time immemorial. Bamboo is enduring, versatile and renewable, and due to its vast production (13.5 million metric tonnes annually), it was also the material of choice in construction. Bamboo can replace a variety of woods that are being increasingly used for construction today, and thus help in saving forests which today are in a critical stage of deforestation. Also, bamboo converts more carbon-di-oxide, than most other plants, and hence a more eco-friendly material. The growth rate of bamboo is also three times to eucalyptus and it can be harvested four times in the same period, hence its production and availability is much more compared to wood. So, bamboo should be the material of choice in the field of construction and not only as a scaffolding option as it i s mostly used today, at least in the regions where it is readily available and in bounty. 1.2.1 Physical and chemical Properties of bamboo Physical Properties Physical properties of bamboo varies greatly from species to species, and to some extent within a species. Culms are generally long and straight and the hollow internodes make it comparatively light. The strength of bamboo varies within the species, age of culm, moisture content and portion of culm and generally increases until it reaches maturity. The tensile strength of a bamboo pole is high parallel to the grain. Bamboo however, fails in shear before it fails in tension and so modulus of rupture is used to calculate strength. Due to its weak transverse bonds between its fibres, it can be spilt easily along the length (radial or tangential) Chemical Properties The main constituents of the bamboo culm are: cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. Other constituents consist of resins, tannins, waxes and inorganic salts. The composition varies based on years of growth, season, species and the part of the culm. Studies on moisture, ligno-cellulosic, starch and silica content are presented in this section. The main percentage composition of a bamboo pole are mainly:  ¿Ã‚ ½ Cellulose Fibers 40%  ¿Ã‚ ½ Parenchyma 50%  ¿Ã‚ ½ Vessels (voids) 10% Mechanical Properties The fibers contribute 60-70% of the weight of the total culm tissue. They are long and tapered at their ends. The ratio of length to width varies between 150:1 and 250:1. Fiber length has showed considerable variation within species. There is also variation in strength properties along the culm height as well. Compressive strength tends to increase with height [Espiloy 1987; Liese 1987; Sattar et al. 1990; Kabir et al. 1991]. The strength increases from the central to the outer part. There is more than 100 percent variation in strength from the inner to the outer layers [Narayanamurti and Bist 1947]. 1.2.2 Bamboo In comparison to other prevalent construction materials A comparative study of the energy required to produce a unit of a building material with a certain level of load-bearing capacity gives an idea of the sustainability of bamboo. Due to its hollowness and the fibres being in the longitudinal direction, bamboo is a very efficient material for structural design, as less material is needed than in case of traditional construction materials such as steel and concrete as massive sections can be avoided. In case of load bearing mass, due to its tubular structure bamboo behaves as a I-shaped cross-section, in each of the direction of its load, but it is less efficient than other cross sections in one or two directions. The mechanical properties, the high extent of flexibility, its exceptionally fast growth rate, comparatively lower weight and low cost make bamboo a preferable building material over other construction materials. Although, in its natural state bamboo is little efficient to be used as a construction material due to its proneness to decay and insect attack, so, bamboo needs to be treated before it can be used as an extensive construction material. 1.2.3 Bamboo as a sustainable construction material Bamboo is not a tree, it is a grass, so unlike trees it does not yield timber. Bamboo ¿Ã‚ ½s environmental benefits arise largely out of its ability to grow and spread quickly  ¿Ã‚ ½ in some cases three to four feet per day  ¿Ã‚ ½ without the need for fertilizers, pesticides or much water. A bamboo grove also releases some 35 percent more oxygen into the air than a similar-sized stand of trees, because of this, planting bamboo is a great way to reduce your carbon footprint and help fight global warming, a perfect selection for going green and it matures (and can be replanted) within seven years (compared to 30-50 years for a stand of trees), helping to improve soil conditions and prevent erosion along the way. Bamboo is so fast-growing that it can yield 20 times more timber than trees on the same area. As a building material, bamboo is also ideal in that it is sturdy, and can be cut and laminated into sheets and planks, just like wood. The quality of bamboo laminate varies between manufacturers and the maturity of the plant from which it was harvested; the sturdiest products fulfill their claims of being up to three times harder than oak hardwood but others may be softer than standard hardwood. Again, the many varieties of bamboo give it the advantage of versatility. For countries who are poor and struggling to move away from polluting industries, growing bamboo has the potential to become a viable economic and environmental solution. Bamboo if used as a major construction material, addresses three major areas: ECOLOGICAL SECURITY: conservation of forests through timber substitution, alternate materials to non-biodegradable high energy consuming materials like metals and plastics SUSTAINABLE FOOD SECURITY: bamboo based agro -forestry system, maintenance of soil fertility of adjoining agricultural lands, and bamboo shoots. LIVELIHOOD SECURITY: generation of employment in planting and primary processing for manufacturing mat based composites and other market driven bamboo products. Bamboo poles can be used to make papers and clothes, and the process is environment friendly as little harmful chemicals are required to make paper and clothes out of the bamboo plant. The environmental impact of bamboo is what makes it an ideal material for construction in both interior and exterior of any building. 1.3: Bamboo Usable in Construction 1.3.1 Durability of bamboo structure Bamboo is a natural composite with remarkable growth rate, and potent physical and mechanical properties which makes it one of the most suitable replacement for wood and a major and most sought after sustainable building material in the region of its growth. But bamboo in its natural state is not a very durable material and is very prone to infestation and decay. Thus, most bamboos used for structural purposes in rural and tribal housing deteriorate in a couple of years, putting heavy pressure on the resource, owing to increased demands for frequent replacements. This adversely affects the supplies of bamboo, even in bamboo rich regions. India, with an annual production of about 3.2 million tones of bamboos, ranks second only to China in bamboo production (Pathak, 1989). Over 136 species in 30 genera occur in India (Suri and Chauhan, 1984). The two most widely distributed genera in India are Bambusa and Dendrocalamus. In South and Southeast Asia, the most economically important species for structural uses from the point of view of easy availability are Bambusa balcoa, Bambusa bambos, Bambusa blumeana, Bambusa nutans, Bambusa polymorpha, Bambusa tulda, Barnbusa vulgaris, Dendrocalarmus hamiltonii, Dendrocalarnus strictus, Melocanna barnbusoides, Gigan tochloa spp., Ochlandra travanicorica and Oxytenathera nigroeiliata. Unfortunately, like most lignocellulosic materials, bamboo has very low resistance to biological degrading agents. Several techniques to enhance its durability have, therefore, been developed. Natural Durability of Bamboo Worldwide and mainly in the South East Asian mainland where bamboo grows in abundance there are a great many traditional and chemical methods for the preservation and enhanced durability of bamboo. However, here we mainly discuss briefly the traditional method of increasing the durability of bamboo which are tested and practiced in the north east Indian region which is the main producer of bamboo in the country. Variation in durability has also been observed along the length of the culm and the thickness of the wall. The lower portion of the culm is considered more durable, while the inner part of the wall deteriorates faster than the outer harder portion. This is probably related to the anatomical and chemical nature of the woody cells. Because of the lack of any toxic constituents, bamboos form a ready food source for a variety of organisms. The presence of considerable quantities of starch in green or dry bamboo makes it more attractive to such organisms, especially stain fungi and borer beetles. Some sap sucking insects have been reported to attack bamboo plantations as well (Chatterjee and Sebastian, 1964,1966; Singh, 1988). The most serious borers of felled bamboos are three species of Dinoderus (celluris, minutes, brevis) and Lyctus, which attack bamboo rich with starch (Casin and Mosteiro, 1970; Sandhu, 1975). They cause immense damage during drying, storage, and subsequent use. Carpenter bees and termites also attack bamboo (Beeson, 1938;Sensarma and Mathur, 1957). Bamboos are attacked by marine organisms as well (Anon, 1945). It is reported that bamboos harvested during summer are more rapidly destroyed than those felled in the rainy season (Liese, 1980). Culms of bamboo plants which have flowered are more resistant to beetles because of starch depletion. Hence, the first point of consideration for the durability of bamboo is harvesting. Harvesting of Bamboo In bamboos, soluble sugars are the principal nutrients for parasites. Thus, bamboos with depleted carbohydrates become reasonably resistant to the attack of borers and staining fungi. Methods adopted for lowering the sugar content at the time of harvesting of bamboos are: (i) Life Cycle: Felling of bamboo at maturity when sugar content is low:- Sugar content in bamboos varies with age. It is lowest during the first year but felling of one-year-old bamboo is not desirable because of very low strength and yield. Normally, bamboo matures at 3-4 years (ii) Annual Cycle: Felling of bamboo during low-sugar content season:-Sugar content in almost all plants varies with seasons. In India, for example, it is higher in spring than in winter (Joseph, 1958). Therefore, it is advisable to harvest bamboos between August and December, which is basically the dry season before monsoons. (iii) Daily Cycle: Felling of bamboo after sunset:- During the day time due to the availability of sunlight a lot of photosynthesis occurs in the bamboo plant and hence a lot of movement of food occurs resulting in increased starch content in most parts of the bamboo tree. But during the night mainly stored food is used and no photosynthesis happens, so it is advisable to fell the bamboo tress after sunset. Leaching of Bamboo The bamboo available after harvest is not ready yet, it still has a large amount of sap content which makes it prone to infestation and decay. Leaching is the removal of sap after harvest. The sap levels in harvested bamboo are reduced either through leaching or postharvest photosynthesis. A variety of leaching practices are used to remove the sap content, the mostly used include: 1. Cut bamboo is raised clear of the ground and leant against the rest of the clump for one to two weeks until leaves turn yellow to allow full consumption of sugars by the plant. 2. A similar method is undertaken, but with the base of the culm standing in fresh water, either in a large drum or stream to leach out sap. 3. Cut culms are immersed in a running stream and weighted down for three to four weeks. 4. Water is pumped through the freshly cut culms, forcing out the sap (this method is often used in conjunction with the injection of some form of treatment). In the process of water leaching, the bamboo is dried slowly and evenly in the shade to avoid cracking in the outer skin of the bamboo, thereby reducing opportunities for pest infestation. Storage of Bamboo The bamboo after removal of the sap content is than ready to be stored in storages but certain precautions are taken to enhance the durability of bamboo, they are: 1. Bamboo is not stored in the open to avoid exposure to climatic forces such as rain and direct sunlight. 2. Bamboo is stored in a semi closed area to allow wind movement through its stacks. 3. Bamboo is stored a bit (app. 10cm) above the ground to avoid infestation from below, also an insect repellent may be sprayed on the ground. 4. Bamboo is stacked in vertical manner, and it should be noted that a minimum of 30% of the moisture in bamboo should be retained. These measures taken ensures that the bamboo is stored properly and is well protected from reagents, and ready for selection and grading. Selection/ Grading of bamboo The bamboo culms are now ready for selection and grading into various categories, which are then accordingly put to use in the construction as per the nature of demand of the work. The main characteristics of a good, durable and structurally usable bamboo culm are based on the following key points along with a idea of advisable range of values. 1. Age and Maturity : plus 5 years 2. Dimensional Characteristics : 4 6 3. Wall Thickness : 12mm 25 mm 4. Inter Nodal Distance 5. Straightness and Uniformity 1.3.2 Treatment processes of bamboo Although a great deal of care is taken in increasing the durability of bamboo right from the beginning from the process of harvesting to the selection and grading, the natural bamboo still is not good for long standing structures due to its still proneness to infestation. Hence, the bamboo is made to go through a number of treatment and preventive processes. Natural means- 1. water seasoning 3-4 months 2. smoke seasoning 3. heat seasoning Chemical means- 1. internodal injection treatment- petro based chemical, creosote oil+diesel (1:1) 25-40ml 2. borax boric solution- 1:1 in hot 25L of water 50g of each 3. vacuum pressure treatment 4. brochh-vsie treatment gravity based 1.4: Current State of Problems 1.4.1 A Glance at the drawbacks of traditional bamboo construction in North East India Since time immemorial bamboo has been an integral part of the traditional practices of the people of north east India. The north eastern parts of India, bamboo is in abundance due to its topography and geographical conditions, and bamboo has found its use in many variations and utilities, ranging from bamboo as a construction material, a key element of interiors such as furnitures and home decor, to daily household usable commodities. Bamboo shoot is a delicacy exquisite to the North Eastern region of India. Although available in bounty in nature, the state of bamboo usable for construction purposes is in a state of bother in the region. The traditional methods of bamboo usage and construction can be said to be inadequate to meet long term goals of sustainable and long lasting and permanent structures.  ¿Ã‚ ½The virtues of bamboo are not new, but the interest in it is, ¿Ã‚ ½ says Antonios Levissianos, UNIDO senior industrial development officer.  ¿Ã‚ ½Bamboo is no longer seen as a poor man ¿Ã‚ ½s timber, it is growing to be the most promising substitute for wood and there is great scope for further generating rural employment. India ¿Ã‚ ½s current demand for bamboo is an estimated 27 million tones. However, only 50 per cent of that demand can be met because of lack of facilities for value addition and transportation. ¿Ã‚ ½ According to Antonios if proper infrastructure is provided for transportation, either by way of roads or canals, bamboo can be a material with great potent ial to be used in the construction industry in the NE region of India. If we are to highlight a few key points as to what leads to the failure of the current traditional system of bamboo usage in the construction industry we can consider the following key points: (i) Bamboo not Treated: In the current practice system of bamboo usage in the region the bamboo after the process of harvesting as discussed in section A3 : 3.1, it undergoes little treatment procedures, which makes it prone to infestation and attack from natural reagents. (ii) Lack of Proper Joinery: The current practice involves crude joinery mechanisms to join two bamboo structural members, which are derogatory and have inverse effects on the life of bamboo and also tend to cause in rupture of the bamboo members. (iii) Lack of Safety measures from Climatic Forces: This is one of the major cause of failure of current bamboo structures, as the natural climatic forces have an adverse effect on the untreated bamboo. The lack of solid and stable joinery is exploited by the wind in the region whereas, the rain and floods play an even dangerous effect to the untreated bamboo. 1.4.2 Identifying the Possible problems in constructing with bamboo The state of bamboo in the North Eastern region of India can be easily be improved if we identify and improve upon the key points or the distinct nodes of the problems, that are associated with the traditional method of construction of bamboo. After a look into our study so far, if we are to list some key issues which needs to be addressed upon as the main nodes to look at for making bamboo a suitable and efficient material of construction we can list out the following points. 1. Appropriate technology for bamboo treatment and working tools The region does not have a proper treatment facility for the treatment of harvested bamboo which will protect it from insect and reagent attacks as well as slow its decay process due to effect from natural forces. Moreover, no specialized tools are available for working with bamboo and most of the work is done with tools developed for wood/timber as such it results in rupture and wear and tear of bamboo elements which can be avoided by proper use of tools developed especially for bamboo. 2. Design of proper joinery system- conducive effective production to bamboo material The current joinery type used for bamboo based construction is either by tying by ropes or bolting with iron bolts as shown in Fig. 11, the rope tied bamboo joints tend to fail the test of time and climatic forces, whereas the bolting results in unwanted cracks and rupture of the structural bamboo elements. 3. Skilled labour- workmanship Although bamboo has been the choice of material since long in the region , a relatively low quantity of labours can come up to the level of being called a primary bamboo construction workman. This is a major setback as to when an architect or builder decides on constructing with bamboo as there is serious lack of skilled labour for bamboo construction. So, the region demands a specialized center for training persons in bamboo construction who can in turn come up to be the skilled bamboo works man for the region. This can inturn help to generate employment for the local public, who after being trained can work as bamboo craftsman in the industry. E.g. Hong Kong Bamboo Scaffolding Factory 4. Change in Social mindset A major setback related to bamboo construction in the region is the social mindset of the people who are of the idea that bamboo is a poor mans timer, and fail to understand the potential and beauty of the bamboo material. A through policy for propagate to mass with appropriate technology has to be introduced in a systematic manner which is competitive, durable, aesthetically pleasing and eco friendly. CHAPTER 2: HYPOTHESIS 2.1 STATEMENT Bamboo is a natural material, it is non-uniform, and degradable in its natural state. However it is one of the most sustainable building materials used till date. However, the key area of concern and the biggest obstacle in the bamboo being used more often in construction is, due to its dimensional constraints the joinery system for the structural elements of a bamboo construction becomes extremely difficult and non-durable. However, custom made joints, which are flexible and also adjustable can help solve the problem as it can convert a non-standardize construction material to a standardize material. Moreover, factory setups for availing the construction industry with well treated, and standardize bamboo elements as well as products can help a great deal in making bamboo the material of choice for construction in the region.  ¿Ã‚ ½Customization of the joinery system of bamboo elements along with better industrial setup for bamboo and bamboo based products will make bamboo a primary construction material. ¿Ã‚ ½ 2.2: METHODOLOGY Literature comprising books, research notes, websites, published papers, news articles and e-mail correspondence were means of research undertaken. the author also visited Assam from 13/05/2012 to 10/06/2012 for observations and discussions with professionals. There were site visits conducted during the period. The understanding developed was in the form of why the traditional method of bamboo construction is inadequate and what are the major problems which limit bamboo usage as the primary construction material. These were then explained in terms of case studies with examples from India and rest of the world. The case studies and the problems are then evaluated to reach a conclusion which hint at possible solution to make bamboo a standard and primary construction material Chapter 3: CASE STUDIES Bamboo itself has a lot of advantages using it for building houses, bridges . It is a cheap, fast growing material with excellent statistics according to the mechanical properties. However, although it is abundantly available in North East India there are some major problems related to bamboo based construction in the region which has been discussed in clause 1.4.2 of chapter 1 of this report. There may be a lot of solutions possible for the above mentioned problems, which are a hurdle to the establishment of the hypothesis statement. In order to throw some light on as to how these problems can be looked at and approached, the following case studies are picked from India and abroad. 3.1 : Case Studies Addressing to Standardization of Bamboo Material Standardization of the bamboo material is a very important aspect towards establishing bamboo as a primary construction material. Bamboo is a natural material, and is non uniform and degradable in nature. Moreover, in the current industry setup there are no specific tools to be worked on bamboo, this as a result makes bamboo a vulnerable material of construction in the region. But, if the bamboo material is somehow standardize, be it whole bamboo or split bamboo, and specific tools are applied for its processing than it is possible to use bamboo and bamboo based products in a way we now use brick and concrete. 3.1.1 : BMTPC Initiative The BMTPC (Building Materials and Technology Promotion Council) of the Ministry of Housing Urban Poverty Alleviation Government of India is looking forward to promote the increased use of Bamboo throughout the country. According to the BMTPC, the strength of bamboo culms, their straightness and lightness combined with hardeners and range and size of hollowers, with good physical and mechanical properties, low shrinkage and average density, it is well suited to replace wood in several applications. The BMTPC propagates the preservation of bamboo through the IS9096:2006, Code of Practice for preservation of bamboo for structural purpose. It covers the type of preservation, the treatment procedure for structural purposes like posts, scaffolding, walls, trusses etc. For the process of standarization the BMTPC has

Improving Procurement Lead Times at Hill Air Force Base Essay -- Busin

Improving Procurement Lead Times at Hill Air Force Base In today’s tough economic times organizations need to seriously look at ways to improve their service level, even in the government. With decreasing military budgets and workforce reductions all government agencies need to streamline activities as much as possible to ensure that the taxpayers’ dollars are being spent wisely and the warfighter is being supported. The National Health Service (NHS) of East Midlands, England has established an excellent website, which benchmarks their twelve steps to process improvement on their Improvement Network (NHS - East Midlands, 2012). The website offers many tools and techniques as well as improvement tools that can be used during the process improvement steps. Although many organizations struggle with process improvements, careful analysis suggests that government agencies can reap the benefits of process improvements just as much as other public and private sectors, especially if they follow an organized approach such as the one identified on the NHS improvement network. Step 1 - Choose a Specific Service to Improve The government procurement process can be a daunting task. Whether the acquisition is competitive or non-competitive, procurement lead times can vary greatly depending on the type of procurement. With news stories of impropriety transpiring among the government on a daily basis more oversight is being required during the procurement process which is adding unnecessary time to the procurement lead times. With the increased oversight requirements it has become more difficult to get the necessary products to the warfighter during their time of need, which greatly affects the ability for government procurement offi... ...though some may argue that making improvements within an organization can be difficult. As long as organizations follow the first four steps in process improvement they should be able to operate more effectively and efficiently. In order for organizations to improve their service levels they need to examine both their internal and external processes and determine the steps required to make necessary improvements. It is essential for organizations to reduce operating costs and improve their service level, even in the government. Works Cited Jacobs, F. R., & Chase, R. B. (2010). Operations and supply chain management. (13 ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill/Irwin. MindTools.com. (2012). essential skills for excellent career. Retrieved from http://www.mindtools.com/ NHS - East Midlands. (2012). The improvement network. Retrieved from http://www.tin.nhs.uk/

Lexicology

HANDBOOK OF WORD-FORMATION Studies in Natural Language and Linguistic Theory VOLUME 64 Managing Editors Marcel den Dikken, City University of New York Liliane Haegeman, University of Lille Joan Maling, Brandeis University Editorial Board Guglielmo Cinque, University of Venice Carol Georgopoulos, University of Utah Jane Grimshaw, Rutgers University Michael Kenstowicz, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Hilda Koopman, University of California, Los Angeles Howard Lasnik, University of Maryland Alec Marantz, Massachusetts Institute of Technology John J.McCarthy, University of Massachusetts, Amherst Ian Roberts, University of Cambridge The titles published in this series are listed at the end of this volume. HANDBOOK OF WORD-FORMATION Edited by PAVOL STEKAUER Pre o University, Pre ov, Slovakia ov e and ROCHELLE LIEBER University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH, U. S. A. A C. I. P. Catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. ISBN-10 ISBN-13 ISBN-10 ISBN-10 ISB N-13 ISBN-13 1-4020-3597-7 (PB) 978-1-4020-3597-5 (PB) 1-4020-3595-0 (HB) 1-4020-3596-9 (e-book) 978-1-4020-3595-1 (HB) 978-1-4020-3596-8 (e-book) Published by Springer, P.O. Box 17, 3300 AA Dordrecht, The Netherlands. www. springeronline. com Printed on acid-free paper All Rights Reserved  © 2005 Springer No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher, with the exception of any material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work. Printed in the Netherlands. CONTENTS PREFACE CONTRIBUTORS vii 1 ANDREW CARSTAIRS-MCCARTHY: BASIC TERMINOLOGY 1. The notion of the linguistic sign 1. 1 EVIDENCE FOR THE MORPHEME-AS-SIGN POSITION IN SAUSSURE’S COURS 1. 2 EVIDENCE FOR THE WORD-AS-SIGN POSITION IN SAUSSUREà ¢â‚¬â„¢S COURS Morpheme and word 2. 1 CASE STUDY: ENGLISH NOUN PLURAL FORMS (PART 1) 2. 2 CASE STUDY: THE PERFECT PARTICIPLE FORMS OF ENGLISH VERBS 2. 3 CASE STUDY: ENGLISH NOUN PLURAL FORMS (PART 2) 2. 4 COMPLEMENTARY DISTRIBUTION AND INFLECTION VERSUS DERIVATION ‘Morphemes’ since the 1960s 5 5 7 8 10 11 14 17 18 20 25 25 2. 3. ELLEN M. KAISSE: WORD-FORMATION AND PHONOLOGY 1. Introduction vi 2.CONTENTS Effects of lexical category, morphological structure, and affix type on phonology 2. 1 EFFECTS OF LEXICAL CATEGORY AND OF MORPHOLOGICAL COMPLEXITY 2. 2 COHERING AND NON-COHERING AFFIXES Morphology limited by the phonological form of the base of affixation Lexical phonology and morphology and its ills More recent developments of lexical phonology and morphology How do related words affect each other? The cycle, transderivational t effects, paradigm uniformity and the like Do the cohering affixes f rm a coherent set? Split bases, SUBCATWORD fo and phonetics in morphology C onclusion 26 26 28 32 34 38 39 41 45 . 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. GREGORY STUMP: WORD-FORMATION AND INFLECTIONAL MORPHOLOGY 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. The conceptual difference between inflection and word-formation The inflectional categories of English Practical criteria for distinguishing inflection from word-formation Practical criteria for distinguishing inflectional periphrases Some similarities between inflection and word-formation Complex interactions between inflection and word-formation Inflectional paradigms and word-formation paradigms 7. 1 PARADIGMS AND HEAD MARKING IN INFLECTION AND DERIVATION 7. 2 PARADIGMS AND BLOCKING IN INFLECTION AND DERIVATION 9 49 50 53 59 60 61 65 65 67 CONTENTS ANDREW SPENCER: WORD-FORMATION AND SYNTAX 1. 2. Introduction Lexical relatedness and syntax 2. 1 MORPHOTACTICS IN CLASSICAL US STRUCTURALISM 2. 2 MORPHOLOGY AS SYNTAX 2. 3 LEXICAL INTEGRITY Syntactic phenomena inside words Argument structure realization 4. 1 DEVERBAL MORPHOLOGY 4. 1. 1 Action nominals 4. 1. 2 Nominals denoting grammatical functions 4. 1. 3 -able adjectives 4. 2 SYNTHETIC COMPOUNDS AND NOUN INCORPORATION Theoretical approaches to word formation Summary and afterword vii 73 73 74 74 74 78 82 83 83 83 87 88 88 89 93 99 3. 4. 5. 6.DIETER KASTOVSKY: HANS MARCHAND AND THE MARCHANDEANS 1. 2. Introduction Hans Marchand 2. 1 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 2. 2 SYNCHRONIC APPROACH 2. 3 MOTIVATION 2. 4 MORPHONOLOGICAL ALTERNATIONS 2. 5 THE CONCEPT OF SYNTAGMA 2. 6 GENERATIVE-TRANSFORMATIONAL INFLUENCE 2. 7 ANALYSIS OF COMPOUNDS 2. 8 PRECURSOR OF LEXICALIST HYPOTHESIS 99 100 100 100 101 102 102 104 105 106 3. Klaus Hansen 107 3. 1 GENERAL 107 3. 2 WORD-FORMEDNESS VS. WORD-FORMATION 107 3. 3 WORD-FORMATION PATTERN VS. WORD-FORMATION TYPE108 3. 4 ONOMASIOLOGICAL APPROACH VS. SEMASIOLOGICAL APPROACH 109 viii 4. CONTENTS Herbert Ernst Brekle 4. GENERAL 4. 2 FRAMEWORK 4. 3 BREKLE’S MODEL 4. 4 PRODUCTION AND INTERPRETATION OF COMPOUNDS Leonhard Lipka 5. 1 GENERAL 5. 2 THEORETICAL DEVEL OPMENT Dieter Kastovsky 6. 1 GENERAL 6. 2 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND 6. 3 WORD-FORMATION AT THE CROSSROADS OF MORPHOLOGY, SYNTAX, SEMANTICS, PRAGMATICS AND THE LEXICON Gabriele Stein (Lady Quirk) Conclusion 109 109 110 110 112 112 112 113 114 114 115 116 116 118 125 125 126 127 128 130 132 133 133 134 136 138 141 142 143 143 5. 6. 7. 8. TOM ROEPER: CHOMSKY’S REMARKS AND THE TRANSFORMATIONALIST HYPOTHESIS 1. Nominalizations and Core Grammar 1. CORE CONTRAST 1. 2 TRANSFORMATIONS The Subject Enigma 2. 1 PASSIVE -ABILITY NOMINALIZATIONS 2. 2 -ING NOMINALIZATIONS Case Assignment 3. 1 COPING WITH EXCEPTIONS 3. 2 THEMATIC-BINDING Intriguing Issues: Aspectual Differentiation of Nominalization Affixes Where do Affixes Attach? Elaborated Phrase Structure and Nominalizations 6. 1 BARE NOMINALS: PREDICTABLE RESTRICTIONS 6. 2 HIGH -ING 6. 3 ACCUSATIVE AND -ING NOMINALIZATIONS 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. CONTENTS 7. Conclusion ix 144 SERGIO SCALISE AND EMILIANO GUEVARA: THE LEXICALIST APPROACH TO WORD-FORM ATION AND THE NOTION OF 147 THE LEXICON 1. . 3. 4. A definition A Brief History 2. 1 LEES (1960) The Lexicon Lexicalism 4. 1 HALLE (1973) 4. 2 ARONOFF (1976) 4. 2. 1The Word-based Hypothesis 4. 2. 2 Word-Formation Rules 4. 2. 3 Productivity 4. 2. 4 Restrictions on WFRs 4. 2. 5 Stratal features 4. 2. 6 Restrictions on the output of WFRs 4. 2. 7 Conditions 4. 2. 8 Summary on Word-Formation Rules Some Major Issues 5. 1 STRONG AND WEAK LEXICALISM More on the Notion of Lexicon Lexicalism Today 7. 1 INFLECTIONAL MORPHOLOGY 7. 2 SYNTACTIC MORPHOLOGY 7. 3 THE SYNTACTIC INCORPORATION HYPOTHESIS 7. 4 WORD-FORMATION AS SYNTAX 7. DISTRIBUTED MORPHOLOGY Conclusion 147 148 150 151 153 153 157 157 158 159 159 161 162 162 166 166 170 171 173 174 176 176 178 180 181 189 5. 6. 7. 8. ROBERT BEARD AND MARK VOLPE: LEXEME -MORPHEME BASE MORPHOLOGY 1. Introduction 189 x 2. CONTENTS The Three Basic Hypotheses of LMBM 2. 1 THE SEPARATION HYPOTHESIS 2. 2 THE UNITARY GRAMMATICAL FUNCTION HYPOTHESIS 2. 3 THE B ASE RULE HYPOTHESIS Types of Lexical (L-) Derivation 3. 1 COMPETENCE: GRAMMATICAL L-DERIVATION 3. 1. 1 Feature Value Switches 3. 1. 2 Functional Lexical-Derivation 3. 1. 3 Transposition 3. 1. Expressive Derivations Conclusion 189 190 191 192 194 194 194 195 198 199 200 201 207 207 208 209 209 211 211 212 214 217 219 221 225 226 226 227 229 3. 4. Appendix PAVOL STEKAUER: ONOMASIOLOGICAL APPROACH TO WORD-FORMATION 1. 2. 3. Introduction Methods of Onomasiological Research Theoretical approaches 3. 1 MILOS DOKULIL 3. 2 JAN HORECKY 3. 3 PAVOL STEKAUER 3. 3. 1 Word-formation as an independent component 3. 3. 2 The act of naming 3. 3. 3 Onomasiological Types 3. 3. 4 Conceptual (onomasiological) recategorization 3. 3. 5 An Onomasiological Approach to Productivity 3. . 6 Headedness 3. 3. 7 Summary 3. 4 BOGDAN SZYMANEK 3. 5 ANDREAS BLANK 3. 6 PETER KOCH DAVID TUGGY: COGNITIVE APPROACH TO WORD-FORMATION 233 1. Basic notions of Cognitive grammar (CG) 1. 1 THE GRAMMAR OF A LANGUAGE UNDER CG 1. 2 LEXICON AND SYNTAX 233 233 235 CONTENTS 2. Schemas and prototypes 2. 1 SCHEMAS AND ELABORATIONS 2. 2 PARTIAL SCHEMATICITY AND THE GROWTH OF SCHEMATIC NETWORKS 2. 3 PROTOTYPICALITY AND SALIENCE 2. 4 ACCESS TO THE STORE OF CONVENTIONAL KNOWLEDGE, INCLUDING NEIGHBORING STRUCTURES 2. 5 SANCTION Schemas for word formation 3. 1 SCHEMAS FOR WORDS 3. SCHEMAS FOR CLEARLY IDENTIFIABLE WORD PIECES: STEMS AND AFFIXES AND CONSTRUCTIONAL SCHEMAS M 3. 3 COMPLEX SEMANTIC AND PHONOLOGICAL POLES 3. 4 SCHEMAS FOR COMPOUNDS 3. 5 STRUCTURAL DESCRIPTIONS, CREATIVITY AND PRODUCTIVE USAGE 3. 6 SANCTION (OF VARIOUS KINDS) FROM COMPONENTS 3. 7 COMPONENTS AND PATTERNS FOR THE WHOLE; OVERLAPPING PATTERNS AND MULTIPLE ANALYSES R A 3. 8 CONSTITUENCY Overview of other issues 4. 1 VALENCE 4. 2 THE MORPHOLOGY-SYNTAX BOUNDARY 4. 3 INFLECTION VS. DERIVATION What’s special about English word formation? Conclusion: Implications of accounting for morphology by schemas i 235 235 236 238 238 239 240 240 244 246 24 8 251 254 256 257 258 258 259 260 261 262 267 267 268 268 268 270 271 272 274 274 276 3. 4. 5. 6. WOLFGANG U. DRESSLER: WORD-FORMATION IN NATURAL MORPHOLOGY 1. 2. Introduction Universal, system-independent morphological naturalness 2. 1 PREFERENCES 2. 2 PREFERENCE FOR ICONICITY 2. 3 INDEXICALITY PREFERENCES 2. 4 PREFERENCE FOR MORPHOSEMANTIC TRANSPARENCY 2. 5 PREFERENCE FOR MORPHOTACTIC TRANSPARENCY 2. 6 PREFERENCE FOR BIUNIQUENESS 2. 7 FIGURE-GROUND PREFERENCES 2. 8 PREFERENCE FOR BINARITY xii CONTENTS 2. 9 OPTIMAL SHAPE OF UNITS 2. 0 ALTERNATIVE NATURALNESS PARAMETERS 2. 11 PREDICTIONS AND CONFLICTS 276 276 277 278 279 279 280 281 285 285 285 286 287 287 290 294 298 298 301 303 304 307 311 315 315 316 317 3. 4. Typological adequacy System-dependent naturalness 4. 1 SYSTEM-ADEQUACY 4. 2 DYNAMIC VS. STATIC MORPHOLOGY 4. 3 UNIVERSAL VS. TYPOLOGICAL VS. SYSTEM-DEPENDENT NATURALNESS PETER ACKEMA AND AD NEELEMAN: WORD-FORMATION IN OPTIMALITY THEORY 1. Introduction 1. 1 OPTIMALITY THEORY 1. 2 COMPETITION IN MORPHOLOGY Competition between different morphemes 2. 1 THE BASIC CASE 2. 2 HAPLOLOGY 2. MARKEDNESS Competition between components 3. 1 ELSEWHERE CASES 3. 2 COMPETITION BETWEEN MODULES THAT DOES NOT INVOLVE THE ELSEWHERE PRINCIPLE Competition between different morpheme orders 4. 1 CONFLICTS BETWEEN LINEAR CORRESPONDENCE AND TEMPLATIC REQUIREMENTS 4. 2 CONFLICTS BETWEEN LINEAR CORRESPONDENCE AND OTHER CORRESPONDENCE CONSTRAINTS Conclusion 2. 3. 4. 5. LAURIE BAUER: PRODUCTIVITY: THEORIES 1. 2. 3. Introduction Pre-generative theories of productivity Schultink (1961) CONTENTS 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Zimmer (1964) Aronoff Natural Morphology Kiparsky (1982) Van Marle (1985) Corbin (1987) iii 318 318 321 322 323 324 324 326 327 328 330 332 335 335 335 335 336 336 339 340 340 340 341 344 345 347 348 349 349 10. Baayen 11. Plag (1999) 12. Hay (2000) 13. Bauer (2001) 14. Some threads 15. Conclusion FRANZ RAINER: CONSTRAINTS ON PRODUCTIVITY 1. 2. Introduction Universal constrain ts 2. 1 CONSTRAINTS SUPPOSEDLY LOCATED AT UG 2. 2 PROCESSING CONSTRAINTS 2. 2. 1 Blocking 2. 2. 2 Complexity Based Ordering 2. 2. 3 Productivity, frequency and length of bases Language-specific constraints 3. 1 LEVEL ORDERING 3. 2 AFFIX-SPECIFIC RESTRICTIONS 3. 2. 1 Phonology 3. 2. 2 Morphology 3. 2. 3 Syntax 3. 2. 4 Argument structure 3. 2. Semantics 3. 2. 6 Pragmatics and Sociolinguistics 3. xiv 4. Final remarks PREFACE 349 PETER HOHENHAUS: LEXICALIZATION AND I INSTITUTIONALIZATION TITUTIONALIZATION 1. 2. Introduction Lexicalization 2. 1 LEXICALIZATION IN A DIACHRONIC SENSE 2. 2 LEXICALIZATION IN A SYNCHRONIC SENSE: LISTING/LISTEDNESS 2. 3 THE LEXICON AND THEORIES OF WORD-FORMATION Institutionalization 3. 1 TERMINOLOGY 3. 2 IDEAL AND REAL SPEAKERS AND THE SPEECH COMMUNITY 3. 3 DE-INSTITUTIONALIZATION: THE END OF A WORD’S LIFE Problems 4. 1 NONCE-FORMATIONS AND NEOLOGISMS 4. 2 (NON-)LEXICALIZABILITY 4. 3 WHAT IS IN THE (MENTAL) LEXICON AND HOW DOES IT GET THERE? . 4 UNPREDIC TABLE & PLAYFUL FORMATIONS, ANALOGY, FADS, AND NEW DEVELOPMENTS 4. 5 LEXICALIZATION BEYOND WORDS 353 353 353 353 356 357 359 359 360 362 363 363 365 367 369 370 375 375 375 376 378 379 379 383 390 391 393 400 402 3. 4. ROCHELLE LIEBER: ENGLISH WORD-FORMATION PROCESSES 1. 2. Introduction Compounding 2. 1 DETERMINING WHAT COUNTS AS A COMPOUND 2. 2 ROOT COMPOUNDING 2. 3 SYNTHETIC COMPOUNDING 2. 4 STRUCTURE AND INTERPRETATION Derivation 3. 1 PREFIXATION 3. 1. 1 Negative prefixes (un-, in-, non-, de-, dis-) 3. 1. 2 Locational prefixes 3. 1. 3 Temporal and aspectual prefixes 3. 1. Quantitative prefixes 3. CONTENTS 3. 1. 5 Verbal prefixes 3. 2 SUFFIXATION 3. 2. 1 Personal nouns 3. 2. 2 Abstract nouns 3. 2. 3 Verb-forming suffixes 3. 2. 4 Adjective-forming suffixes 3. 2. 5 Collectives 3. 3 CONCLUSION 4. 5. Conversion Conclusion xv 402 403 403 406 410 413 417 418 418 422 429 429 430 431 BOGDAN SZYMANEK: THE LATEST TRENDS IN ENGLISH WORD-FORMATION 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Introduction Deriv ational neologisms Analogical formations, local analogies Changes in the relative significance of types of word-formation processes 431 Secretion of new affixes ‘Lexicalisation’ of affixes 435 436Changes in the productivity, relative productivity and scope of individual 436 affixes Semantics: changes in formative functions 438 Trends in the form of complex words 441 9. 1 CHOICE OF RIVAL AFFIXES – MORPHOLOGICAL DOUBLETS 441 9. 2 PHONOLOGICAL FORM – STRESS 443 449 459 465 SUBJECT INDEX NAME INDEX LANGUAGE INDEX PREFACE Following years of complete or partial neglect of issues concerning word formation (by which we mean primarily derivation, compounding, and conversion), the year 1960 marked a revival – some might even say a resurrection – of this important field of linguistic study.While written in completely different theoretical frameworks (structuralist vs. transformationalist), from completely different perspectives, and with different objec tives, both Marchand’s Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation in Europe and Lees’ Grammar of English Nominalizations instigated systematic research in the field. As a result, a large number of seminal works emerged over the next decades, making the scope of wordt formation research broader and deeper, thus contributing to better understanding of this exciting area of human language.Parts of this development have been captured in texts or ‘review’ books (e. g. P. H. Matthews’ Morphology: An Introduction to the Theory of Word-Structure (1974), Andrew Spencer’s Morphological Theory: An Introduction to Word Structure in Generative Grammar (1991), Francis Katamba’s Morphology (1993), r Spencer and Zwicky’s Handbook of Morphology (1998)), but these books tend to discuss both inflectional and derivational morphology, and to do so mostly from the generative point of view.What seemed lacking to us was a volume intende d for advanced students and other researchers in linguistics which would trace the many strands of study – both generative and non-generative – that have developed from Marchand’s and Lees’ seminal works, on both sides of the Atlantic. The ambitions of this Handbook of Word-formation are four-fold: 1. To map the state of the art in the field of word-formation. 2. To avoid a biased approach to word-formation by presenting different, mutually complementary, frameworks within which research into wordformation has taken place. vii xviii 3. 4. PREFACE To present the specific topics from the perspective of experts who have significantly contributed to the respective topics discussed. To look specifically at individual English word formation processes and review some of the developments that have taken place since Marchand’s comprehensive treatment forty five years ago. Thus, the Handbook provides the reader with the state of the art in the study of k wor d formation (with a special view to English word formation) at the eginning of the third millennium. The Handbook is intended to give the reader a clear idea of the k large number of issues examined within word-formation, the different methods and approaches used, and an ever-growing number of tasks to be disposed of in future research. At the same time, it gives evidence of the great theoretical achievements and the vitality of this field that has become a full-fledged linguistic discipline. We wish to express our gratitude to all the contributors to the Handbook. The editors CONTRIBUTORSPeter Ackema is lecturer in linguistics at the University of Edinburgh. He has worked extensively on issues regarding the morphology-syntax interface, on which he has published two books, Issues in Morphosyntax (Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1999), and Beyond Morphology (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004, co-authored with Ad Neeleman). He has also published on a wide range of syntaxinternal and mo rphology-internal topics. Laurie Bauer holds a personal chair in Linguistics at Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand.He has published widely on international varieties of English, especially New Zealand English, and on aspects of morphology, including English Word-formation (Cambridge University Press, 1983), Morphological Productivity (Cambridge University Press, 2001), Introducing Linguistic Morphology (Edinburgh University Press, 2nd edn, 2003), A Glossary of Morphology (Edinburgh University Press, 2004). Robert Beard received his PhD in Slavic linguistics from the University of Michigan and taught for 35 years at Bucknell University.In 2000 he retired as the Ruth Everett Sierzega Professor of Linguistics at Bucknell to found the web-based company of language products and services, yourDictionary. com, where he is currently CEO. He is the author of The Indo-European Lexicon (Amsterdam: NorthHolland, 1981) and Lexeme-Morpheme Base Morphology (New York: SUNY Press, 1995). Andrew Carstairs-McCarthy is Professor in the Department of Linguistics at the University of Canterbury, New Zealand. He is the author of Allomorphy in Inflexion (London: Croom Helm, 1987), Current Morphology (London and New York: Routledge, 1992) and An Introduction to English Morphology (Edinburgh:Edinburgh University Press, 2002). He is also interested in language evolution, and has published The Origins of Complex Language: An Inquiry into the Evolutionary Beginnings of Sentences, Syllables and Truth (Oxford: OUP, 1999). 1 2 CONTRIBUTORS Wolfgang Dressler is Professor of linguistics, Head of the Department of r Linguisics at the University of Vienna and of the Commission for Linguistics of the Austrian Academy of Sciences. He is the author of Morphonology (Ann Arbor: Karoma Press, 1985) and Morphopragmatics (with Lavinia Merlini Barbaresi) (Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1994).Emiliano Guevara is lecturer of General Linguistics at the University of Bologna and is member of the Mor- Bo reserach group at the Department of Foreign languages in Bologna. His publications include â€Å"V-Compounding in Dutch and Italian† (Cuadernos de Linguistica, Instituto Universitario Ortega y Gasset, 1-21 (with S. Scalise) and â€Å"Selection in compounding and derivation† (to appear) (with S. m Scalise and A. Bisetto). Peter Hohenhaus is lecturer in modern linguistics at the University of Nottingham (UK).He received his PhD in English Linguistics from the University of Hamburg and has published on standardization and purism, humorology, computer-mediated communication as well as English and German word-formation, in particular nonce word-formation, including the volume Ad-hoc-Wortbildung – Terminologie, Typologie und Theorie kreativer Wortbildung im Englischen (Frankfurt, Bern etc. : Lang, 1996). Ellen M. Kaisse is Professor of Linguistics, University of Washington, Seattle. Her main fields of research include morphology-phonology and syntaxphonology interf aces, intonation, historical phonology, and Spanish phonology.She is an author of Connected speech: the interaction of syntax and phonology (Orlando: t Academic Press, 1985), Studies in Lexical Phonology (ed. with S. Hargus, Orlando: y Academic Press, 1993), â€Å"Palatal vowels, glides, and consonants in Argentinian Spanish† (with J. Harris) (Phonology 16, 1999, 117-190), â€Å"The long fall: an intonational melody of Argentinian Spanish† (In: Features and interfaces in Romance, ed. by Herschensohn, Mallen and Zagona, 2001, 147-160), and â€Å"Sympathy meets Argentinian Spanish† (In: The nature of the word: essays in honor of Paul Kiparsky, ed. by K. Hanson and S. Inkelas, MIT Press, in press).Dieter Kastovsky is Professor of English Linguistics at the University of Vienna and Director of the Center for Translation Studies. His main fields of interest include English morphology and word-formation (synchronic and diachronic), semantics, history of linguistics, a nd language typology. He is the author of Old English Deverbal Substantives Derived by Means of a Zero Morpheme (Esslingen/N. : Langer, 1968), Wortbildung und Semantik (Tubingen/Dusseldorf: k Francke/Bagel, 1982), and more than 80 articles on English morphology and wordformation (synchronic and diachronic), semantics, history of linguistics, and language typology.Rochelle Lieber is Professor of English at the University of New Hampshire. Her publications include: Morphology and Lexical Semantics HANDBOOK OF WORD-FORMATION 3 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2004), Deconstructing Morphology (Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1992), and An Integrated Theory of Autosegmental Processes (New York: SUNY Press 1987), as well as numerous articles on various aspects of word formation and the interfaces between morphology and syntax, and morphology and phonology. Ad Neeleman is Reader in Linguistics at University College London.His main research interests are case theory, the syntacti c encoding of thematic dependencies, and the interaction between syntax and syntax-external systems. His main publications include Complex Predicates (1993), Flexible Syntax (1999, with Fred Weerman), Beyond Morphology (Oxford: Oxford University Press 2004, with Peter Ackema), as well as articles in Linguistic Inquiry, Natural Language and Linguistic Theory, and Yearbook of Morphology. Franz Rainer is Professor of Romance languages at the Vienna University of Economics and Business Administration.He is the author of Spanische Wortbildungslehre (Tubingen: Niemeyer, 1993) and co-editor (with Maria Grossmann) of La formazione delle parole in italiano (Tubingen: Niemeyer, 2004), both of these publications being comprehensive treatments of the word-formation in the respective languages. Tom Roeper, Professor of Linguistics at the University of Massachusetts, has written widely on morphology and language acquisiton, including compounds, nominalizations, implicit arguments, and derivationi al morphology.In the field of language aquisition, he is also Managing Editor of Studies in Theoretical Psycholinguistics (Kluwer), a Founding editor of Language Acquisition (Erlbaum), and also the author of Understanding and Producing Speech (London: Fontana, g 1983, co-authored with Ed Matthei), Parameter Setting (Dordrecht: Reidel, 1987, with E. Williams), Theoretical Issues in Language Acquisition (Hillsdale: Erlbaum, 1992, with H. Goodluck and J. Weissenborn), and the forthcoming The Prism of Grammar (MIT Press). Sergio Scalise is Professor of General Linguistics at the University of Bologna. He is the editor of the journal Lingue e Linguaggio.His pulications include Generative Morphology (Dordrecht: Foris, 1984), Morfologia (Bologna: Il Mulino, 1994), and Le lingue e il Linguaggio (Bologna: Il Mulino, 2001 (with Giorgio Graffi)). Andrew Spencer is Professor of Linguistics in the Department of Language and Linguistics at the University of Essex. He has worked on various problem s of phonological and morphological theory. In addition to English, his major language area is Slavic. He is the author of Morphological Theory (Oxford: Blackwells, 1991) and co-editor (with Arnold Zwicky) of the Handbook of Morphology (Oxford: Blackwells, 1998). CONTRIBUTORS Pavol Stekauer is Professor of English linguistics in the Department of British and American Studies, Presov University, Slovakia. His research has focused on an onomasiological approach to word-formation and on the history of research into word-formation. He is the author of A Theory of Conversion in English (Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 1996), An Onomasiological Theory of English Word-Formation (Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 1998)), and English Word-Formation. A History of Research (1960-1995).Tubingen: Gunter Narr, 2000), and the forthcoming Meaning Predictability in Word-Formation (Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins) Gregory T. Stump is Professor of English and Linguistics at the University of Kentucky. His research has focused on the development of Paradigm Function Morphology. He is the author of The Semantic Variability of Absolute Constructions (Dordrecht: Reidel, 1985), Inflectional Morphology: A Theory of Paradigm Structure (Cambridge: CUP, 2001). He is currently serving as an Associate Editor of Language and as a Consulting Editor for Yearbook of Morphology.Bogdan Szymanek is Professor of English linguistics, Head of the Department of Modern English, Catholic University of Lublin, Poland. His major research interests include morphology and its interfaces with other grammatical components, lexicology, English and Slavic languages. He is the author of Categories and categorization in morphology (RW KUL Lublin, 1988) and d Introduction to morphological analysis (PWN Warsaw, 1998 (3rd ed. )). David Tuggy has worked in Mexico with the Summer Institute of Linguistics since 1970.His main areas of interest include Nahuatl, Cognitive f grammar, translation, lexicography, and inadvertent blends and other bloopers. He is an author of The transitivity-related morphology of Tetelcingo Nahuatl; An exploration in Space grammar (UCSD Doctoral dissertation, 1981), â€Å"The affix-stem r distinction; A Cognitive grammar analysis of data from Orizaba Nahuatl† (Cognitive Linguistics 3/3, 237-300), â€Å"The thing is is that people talk that way. The question is is why? † (In: E. Casad (ed. ). 1995.Cognitive linguistics in the redwoods; the expansion of a new paradigm in linguistics. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 713-752. ), and â€Å" â€Å"Abrelatas and scarecrow nouns: Exocentric verb-noun compounds as illustrations of basic principles of Cognitive grammar† ( (International Journal of English Studies (2004) III, 25-61). Mark Volpe is a Ph. D candidate at SUNY at Stony Brook expecting to defend his dissertation on Japanese morphology in early spring 2005. He is currently a visiting lecturer in the Department of Humanities at Mie National U niversity in Tsu, Japan.He has published independently in Lingua and Snippets and has coauthored with Paolo Acquaviva, Mark Aronoff and Robert Beard. BASIC TERMINOLOGY ANDREW CARSTAIRS-MCCARTHY 1. THE NOTION OF THE LINGUISTIC SIGN In this introductory chapter I will discuss the notions ‘morpheme’ and ‘sign’ in relation to word-formation. The starting-point will be Ferdinand de Saussure’s notion ‘sign’ (signe) (Saussure 1973), which since the early twentieth century has influenced enormously how linguists have analysed words and parts of words as grammatical units.There will be no tidy conclusion, partly because Saussure himself was vague on crucial points, and partly because among contemporary linguistic theorists there is little agreement about even the most fundamental aspects of how word-formation should be analysed and what terminology should be used in describing it. But I hope that this chapter will alert readers to some of the mai n risks of misunderstanding that they are sure to encounter later. 1 A handbook of English syntax in the twenty-first century would not be likely to begin with a discussion of Saussure. Why then does it make sense for a handbook on word-formation to do so?There are two reasons. The first is that syntax is centrally concerned not with individual signs in Saussure’s sense but with combinations of signs. That makes it sound as if word-formation, by contrast, is concerned not with combinations of signs but only with individual signs. As to whether that implication is attractive or not, readers can in due course form their own opinions. For the present, it is enough to say that, in the opinion of most but not all linguists, the way in which meaningful elements are combined in syntax is different from how they are combined in complex words.The second reason has to do with Saussure’s distinction between language as social convention (langue) and language as ( utterance (parol e). Each language as langue belongs to a community of speakers and, because it is a social convention, individuals have no control over it. On the other hand, language as parole is something that individual speakers have control over; it consists of the use that individuals freely make of their langue in the sentences and phrases that they utter.Hence, because syntax is concerned with the structure of sentences and phrases, Saussure seems to have considered the study of syntax as belonging to the study of parole, not langue (the exception being those sentences or phrases that are idioms or cliches and which therefore belong to langue because they are conventional rather than freely constructed). So, because his focus was on langue rather than parole, Saussure had little to say about syntax. 1 I will use ‘Saussure’ in this chapter as shorthand for ‘Saussure’s view as presented in the Cours de linguistique generale’.The Cours is a posthumous compilatio n based on notes of various series of lectures that Saussure delivered over a number of years. Apparent inconsistencies in the Cours may be due to developments in Saussure’s thinking over time or faulty note-taking on the part of the compilers or both. Nevertheless, it is the Cours as a whole that has influenced subsequent linguists, and on that basis it is fair to discuss it as if it were created by one author as a single coherent work. 5 Stekauer P. and R. Lieber (eds. ), Handbook of Word-Formation, 5—23. 2005 Springer. Printed in the Netherlands. 6 ANDREW CARSTAIRS-MCCARTHY Saussure introduced his notion ‘sign’ with a famous example: a diagram consisting of an ellipse, the upper half containing a picture of a tree and the lower half containing the Latin word arbor ‘tree’ (Saussure Cours, part 1, chapter 1; 99; r 67). 2 The upper half of the diagram is meant to represent a concept, or what the sign signifies (its signifie), while the lower h alf represents the unit of expression in Latin that signifies it (the signifiant).As Saussure acknowledges, the term ‘sign’ in its normal usage seems closer to the signifiant than the signifie, and at first one is t inclined to ask what the point is in distinguishing the signifiant from the sign as a t whole. Saussure’s answer lies largely in his view of how signs are related to each other. Signs (he says) do not function in isolation but rather have a ‘value’ (valeur) as part of a system (part 2, chapter 4; 155-69; 110-20). Concepts (signifies) do not exist in the world indepently of language but only as components of the signs to which they belong.By this Saussure does not mean that (for example) trees have no real existence apart from language, but rather that the term for the concept ‘tree’ will differ in valeur from one language to another depending on whether or not that r language has, for example, contrasting terms for the concep t ‘bush’ (a small tree) or the concept ‘timber’ (wood from trees for use in building or furniture-making). 3 Each signifie has a wider or narrower scope, according to how few or how many are the related signs that its sign contrasts with.And with signifiants, too, what matters most is not the sounds or letters that compose them but their role in distinguishing one sign from another. Thus the Attic Greek verb forms ephe:n ‘I was saying’ and este:n ‘I stood’ both have the same structure (a prefix e-, a root, and a suffix -n), but their valeur within their respective verbal paradigms is different: ephe:n is an r ‘imperfect’ tense form while este:n is ‘aorist’. So far, so good, perhaps.The Latin word arbor and the English word tree are r simple words, not analysable into smaller meaningful parts, and each is in Saussure’s terms a sign. But consider the word unhelpfulness, which seems clearly to consist of four elements, un-, help, -ful and -ness, each of which contributes in a l transparent way to the meaning of the whole. Consider also the words Londoner, Muscovite, Parisian, Roman, and Viennese, all meaning ‘inhabitant of †¦ ’, and all consisting of a stem followed by a suffix. What things count as signs here: the whole words, or the elements composing them, or both?It is at this point that Saussure’s exposition becomes frustratingly unclear, as I will demonstrate presently. Let us call these elements ‘morphemes’. This is consistent with the usage of Baudouin de Courtenay, the inventor of the term, who speaks of ‘the unification of the concepts of root, affix, prefix, ending, and the like under the common term, morpheme’ (Baudouin de Courtenay 1972: 151) and defines it as ‘that part of a word which is endowed with psychological autonomy and is for the very same reason not 2Because readers are likely to have access to Sauss ure’s Cours in various different editions and translations, I will give first a reference to the relevant part and chapter, then a page reference to the 1973 edition by Tullio de Mauro, and finally a page reference to the 1983 translation by Roy Harris. I quote passages from the Cours in the translation by Harris. I use Saussure’s original technical terms langue, parole, signifiant and signifie, for which no consistent English equivalents have become t established. 3 This illustration is mine, not Saussure’s, but is in the spirit ofSaussure’s discussion of how two English words sheep and mutton correspond to one French word mouton. BASIC TERMINOLOGY 7 further divisible’ (1972: 153). It is also consistent with rough-and-ready definitions of the kind offered in introductory linguistics courses, where morphemes are characterised as individually meaningful units which are minimal in the sense that they are not divisible into smaller meaningful units. 4 The question just posed now becomes: Do morphemes count as signs, or do only words count, or both?Much of the divergence in how the term ‘morpheme’ is used can be seen as due to implicit or explicit attempts to treat morphemes as signs, despite the difficulties that quickly arise when one does so. These are difficulties that Saussure never confronts, because the term ‘morpheme’ never appears in the Cours. In Saussure’s defence, one can fairly plead that he could not be expected to cover every aspect of his notion of the sign in introductory lectures. Yet the question that I have just posed about morphemes is one that naturally arises almost as soon as the notion of the sign is introduced.A case can be made for attributing to Saussure two diametrically opposed positions relating to the role of signs in word-formation. I will call these the morpheme-as-sign position and the word-as-sign position. I will first present evidence from the Cours for morphe mes as signs, then present evidence for words as signs. 1. 1 Evidence for the morpheme-as-sign position in Saussure’s Cours The distinction between langue and parole is far from the only important binary distinction introduced by Saussure in his Cours.Another is the distinction between syntagmatic relationships (involving elements in linear succession) and associative relationships (involving elements that contrast on a dimension of choice). 5 Elements that can be related syntagmatically include signs, and in particular the signifiants of signs, which are ‘presented one after another’ so as to ‘form a chain’ (part 1, chapter 1, section 3; 103; 70). Chains of items that form syntagmatically related combinations are called syntagmas (syntagmes) (part 2, chapter 5; 170-5; 121-5). Some syntagmas have meanings that are conventionalised or idiomatic.This conventionalisation renders them part of langue. An example is the phrase prendre la mouche (literally ‘to take the fly’), which means ‘to take offence’ (part 2, chapter 5, section 2; 172; 123). However, the great majority of phrases and sentences have meanings that are transparent, not idiomatic. As such, they belong to parole, not to langue. As examples of syntagmas that belong to parole, Saussure cites contre tous ‘against all’, la vie humaine ‘human life’, Dieu est bon ‘God is good’, and s’il fait beau temps, nous sortirons ‘if it’s fine, we’ll go out’ (part 2, chapter 5, section 1; 170; 121).These phrases and sentences do not constitute signs as wholes; rather, t 4 5 This resembles Bloomfield’s classic definition: ‘a linguistic form which bears no partial phoneticsemantic resemblance to any other form’ (1933: 161). One implication of the specification ‘partial’ is that two morphemes may display total phonetic identity (so as to be homonyms) or total semantic identity (so as to be synonyms). In the technical terminology of linguistics, the term ‘paradigmatic’, promoted by Louis Hjelmslev (1961), has come to replace ‘associative’ as the counterpart of ‘syntagmatic’.But I will stick to Saussure’s term in this chapter. 8 ANDREW CARSTAIRS-MCCARTHY they are made up of smaller signs, namely the words or idiomatic expressions that they contain. On this basis, the question ‘Do morphemes count as signs? ’ can be refined as ‘Can morphemes as such compose syntagmas that belong to parole rather than to langue? ’ At first sight, the answer is yes. In the very same passage where Saussure gives the examples just quoted, he cites the word re-lire ‘to read again’.Saussure uses the hyphen to draw attention to the divisibility of this word into two elements, re- ‘again’ and lire ‘to read’. The word relire thus has a meaning that is as tr ansparent as that of unhelpfulness. Here, at least, it seems clear that Saussure intends us to analyse the morpheme re- as a sign, forming part of a syntagma that belongs to parole rather than to langue. Further evidence for this ‘morpheme-as-sign’ position seems to be supplied by Saussure’s discussion of suffixes such as -ment and -eux, and of zero signs.The t words enseignement ‘instruction’, enseigner ‘to teach’ and enseignons ‘we teach’ t r clearly share what Saussure calls a ‘common element’. Similarly, the suffixes -ment and -eux are ‘common elements’ in the set of words enseignement, armement ‘armament’ and changement ‘change (noun)’, and in the set desir-eux ‘desirous’ t (from desir ‘desire’), chaleur-eux ‘warm’ (from chaleur ‘warmth’), and peur-eux r r ‘fearful’ (from peur ‘fear’) (part 2 , chapter 5, section 3; 173-5; 123-5). 6 These r common elements are morphemes, in terms of our rough-and-ready definition.Are they also signs, in Saussure’s sense? Saussure hints at the answer ‘yes’ when he discusses a set of instances where overt suffixes contrast with zero. In Czech, the noun zena ‘woman’ illustrates a widespread pattern in which the genitive plural form zen is differentiated from the other case-number forms, such as the accusative singular zenu and the nominative plural zeny, simply by the absence of a suffix. Here the genitive plural has as its exponent ‘zero’ or ‘the sign zero’ (part 1, chapter 3, section 3; 123-4; 86).Surely then (one is inclined to think) the accusative singular suffix -u and the nominative plural suffix -y, both being morphemes in our sense, must have at least as much right as zero has to count as signs. It is tempting to conclude that, in complex words, Saussure recognises individu al morphemes as signs provided that the complex word is regularly formed and semantically transparent. A reader of the Cours who looks for explicit confirmation of this tempting conclusion will be frustrated, however.Many complex words other than re-lire and forms of zena are discussed, but always it is in contexts that emphasise the associative relationships of the word as a whole, rather than the syntagmatic relationship between the morphemes that compose it. These discussions point away from morphemes as signs and towards words as signs, therefore. 1. 2 Evidence for the word-as-sign position in Saussure’s Cours Closely parallel in structure to relire is the verb de-faire ‘to undo’, also discussed by Saussure (part 2, chapter 6, section 2; 177-8; 127-8). Again he uses a hyphen to draw attention to its internal structure.The meaning of defaire, at least in many 6 The inconsistency in the use of hyphens here is Saussure’s. BASIC TERMINOLOGY 9 contexts, see ms just as transparent as that of relire, on the basis of the meanings of faire ‘to do’ and de- implying reversal. Indeed, Saussure draws our attention to this transparency by citing the parallel formations decoller ‘to unstick’, deplacer ‘to r r remove’ (literally ‘to un-place’) and decoudre ‘to unsew’. However, comparing the discussion of relire, we find an important difference in emphasis here. With relire, the emphasis was on syntagmatic relationships.With defaire, however, the emphasis is on the associative relationships that it enters into: not just with decoller, deplacer and decoudre but also with faire itself, refaire ‘to redo’, and contrefaire ‘to caricature’. Now, it is clear that contrefaire is something of an outsider in this list, because its meaning cannot be predicted from that of its elements faire and contre ‘against’. One might therefore have expected Saussure t o say something like this: â€Å"Because of its unpredictable meaning, the syntagma contrefaire is conventionalised and belongs as a unitary sign to langue, so that contre and faire do not count as signs in this context.However, the meanings of the other complex words I have cited are predictable, so they are examples of syntagmas that belong to parole, and in them the morphemes re- and de-, as well as the verb stems that accompany them, are signs. † But what Saussure actually says is almost the opposite of that. The word defaire is decomposable into ‘smaller units’, he says, only to the extent that is ‘surrounded by’ those other forms (decoller, refaire and so on) on the axis of association. Moreover, a word such as desireux is ‘a product, a combination of interdependent elements, their value [i. . valeur] deriving solely from their mutual contributions within a larger unit’ (part 2, chapter 6, section 1; 176; 126). Recall that valeur i s a property of signs, dependent on their place within the sign system as a r whole. Saussure’s words here imply, therefore, that in desireux, the ‘smaller unit’ or ‘element’ -eux, though clearly identifiable, is not a sign. Saussure hints that even the root desir, in the context of this word, does not count as a sign either, although it clearly does so when it appears as a word on its own. We are thus left with a contradiction.The word relire is cited in a context that invites us to treat it as a unit of parole, not langue, composed of signs, just like the sentence If it’s fine, we’ll go out. On the other hand, the discussion surrounding defaire insists on its status as a unit of langue, a sign as a whole, composed of ‘elements’ or ‘smaller units’ that are not signs. On the basis of my presentation so far, the evidence for the two positions (morpheme-as-sign and word-as-sign) may seem fairly evenly balanced. B ut there are solid reasons to think that the word-as-sign position more closely reflects Saussure’s true view.Consider the French number word dix-neuf ‘nineteen’ (literally f ‘ten-nine’). In such a transparent compound as this, the two morphemes dix and neuf, being words (and hence signs) on their own, must surely still count as signs f (one may think). But no, says Saussure: dix-neuf does not contain parts that are signs f any more than vingt ‘twenty’ does (part 2, chapter 6, section 3; 181; 130). The t difference between dix-neuf and vingt, as he presents it, involves a new distinction: f t between signs that are motivated and signs that are unmotivated.The sign vingt is unmotivated in that it is purely arbitrary: the sounds (or letters) that make it up give f no clue to its meaning. The sign dix-neuf however, contains subunits which give clues to its meaning that could hardly be stronger. Even so, according to Saussure, 10 ANDREW CARS TAIRS-MCCARTHY dix-neuf is still a single sign on the same plane as vingt or neuf or soixante-dix f t f ‘seventy’ (literally ‘sixty-ten’). It is the valeur of dix-neuf in the system of French r f number words that imposes on it the status of a unitary sign, despite its semantic transparency. Saussure might also have added that this transparency, real though it is, depends on a convention that belongs to French langue, not parole: the convention that concatenation of dix and neuf means ‘ten plus nine’, not ‘ten times f nine’ or ‘ten to the ninth power’, for example. His neglect of this point reflects his general neglect of syntactic and syntagmatic convention. 7 Similarly, the English plural form ships is motivated because it ‘recall[s] a whole series like flags, birds, books, etc. ’, while men and sheep are unmotivated because they ‘recall no parallel cases’.The plural suffix -(e)s is, in the English-speaking world, among the first halfdozen ‘morphemes’ that every beginning student of linguistics is introduced to. Yet for Saussure it does not count as sign; it is merely a reason for classifying the words that it appears in (ships, flags etc. ) as relatively motivated signs rather than purely d arbitrary ones. There is thus a striking discrepancy between the word-centred approach to complex words, predominant in the work of the pioneer structuralist Saussure, and the morpheme-centred approach that (as we shall see) predominated among his structuralist successors.In section 2 I will outline the attractions and pitfalls of morpheme-centred approaches. 2. MORPHEME AND WORD Saussure recognised some of the difficulties inherent in using ‘word’ as a technical term (part 2, chapter 2, section 3). Nevertheless, when illustrating his notion ‘sign’, he chose linguistic units that in ordinary usage would be classified as r r words, such as Lati n arbor ‘tree’ and French juger ‘to judge’ (part 1, chapter 1, section 1; part 2, chapter 4, section 2).This may be largely because the languages from which he drew his examples were nearly all well-studied European languages with a long written history and a tradition of grammatical and lexical analysis in f terms of which the identification of words (in some sense) was uncontroversial. However, accompanying the theoretical developments in linguistics in the early twentieth century was an explosion in fieldwork on non-Indo-European languages, particularly in the Americas and Africa. In these languages, lacking a European-style tradition of grammatical description, identifying words as linguistic units often seemed problematic.In fact, there was a strong current of opinion according to which the word deserves no special status in linguistic description, and in particular no special status warranting a distinction between the internal structure of words (â⠂¬Ëœmorphology’) and the internal structure of phrases and sentences (‘syntax’). As Malinowski put it, ‘isolated words are in fact only linguistic figments, the products of an advanced linguistic analysis’ (Malinowski 1935: 11, cited by Robins 1990: 154). So what units are appropriate as tools for a preliminary linguistic analysis?It seemed natural to answer: those units that are clearly indivisible grammatically and t 7 I owe this point to Harris (1987: 132). BASIC TERMINOLOGY 11 lexically, or, in other words, units of the kind that we provisionally labelled ‘morphemes’ in section 1. Thus, despite Saussure’s leaning towards the word-assign position, the experience of fieldwork on languages unfamiliar to most European and American scholars imposed a preference for a version of the morpheme-as-sign position. Where, then, does the morpheme-as-sign position leads us?Let us recall first the Saussurean norm of what constitutes a signif iant: a sequentially ordered string of sounds, such as Latin [arbor] (spelled arbor) or French [ y e] (spelled juger), such that every unit of parole is analysable exhaustively as a string of signifiants (part 1, chapter 1, section 3). What we will observe is a temptation towards signs with signifiants that deviate progressively further from this norm. The analyses that I will discuss are based on an approach to morphemes that was expounded in particular by Zellig S. Harris (1942), Charles F.Hockett (1947), Bernard Bloch (1947) and Eugene A. Nida (1948). None of these explicitly espouses the morpheme-as-sign position, because none of them cites Saussure. However, the issues that they discuss can all be seen as prima facie difficulties for that position. The fact that all these references are clustered more than half a century ago reflects the replacement of f morphology by syntax at the centre of grammatical theory-construction. Nevertheless, I will comment in section 3 on uses of t he term ‘morpheme’ since about 1960. 2. Case study: English noun plural forms (part 1) f For Saussure, as we have seen, the -s suffix of flags and ships is not a sign but an element that renders those words relatively motivated, by contrast with men and sheep. Let us say instead that this -s suffix is indeed a sign, with the signifie ‘plural’. What is its signifiant? So far as English spelling is concerned, the answer is simple. When we turn to phonology, however, we encounter our first stumbling-block. In a conventional phonemic transcription for these two words, the suffix will appear in two different shapes, /z/ and /s/, (/fl? , ps/), and there is yet a third shape, either / z/ or / z/, according to dialect, found in words such as roses, horses, churches and judges. 8 Must we then recognise three different signs with the same signifie? Such an analysis would place these three signs on a par with sets of synonyms such as courgettes and zucchini, or nearly and almost. That is hardly satisfactory, because it neglects the role of phonology in determining the complementary distribution of the three shapes: / z/ appears after strident coronal sounds, while elsewhere /z/ appears after voiced sounds and /s/after voiceless ones.It was in relation to patterns such as this that the term ‘allomorph’ was first introduced in morphology. The intended parallel with the notions ‘phoneme’ and ‘allophone’ is evident. Just as sounds that are phonetically similar and in 8 In my dialect, the third shape is / z/, so that taxes sounds the same as taxis, but roses sounds different from Rosa’s. For many speakers of other dialects, the homophony pattern is the other way round. The examples that I will discuss fit my own dialect, but similar examples can easily be constructed to t make the same point for speakers with the other homophony pattern. 2 ANDREW CARSTAIRS-MCCARTHY complementary distribution count as allo phones of one phoneme, so individually meaningful units that are not divisible into smaller meaningful units, provided that they are synonymous and in complementary distribution, count as allomorphs of one morpheme. And just as it is the allophones of a phoneme that get pronounced, rather than the phoneme itself, a morpheme is likewise not pronounced directly, but represented in the speech chain by whichever of its allomorphs is appropriate for the context.This applies even to morphemes that have the same shape in all contexts, because there is no reason in principle why a morpheme should not have only one allomorph, just as a phoneme may have only one allophone. Notice, however, that that phrase ‘individually meaningful units that are not divisible into smaller meaningful units’ is lifted from my provisional definition of ‘morpheme’ in section 1. It seems, then, that our exploration of the morpheme-assign position has led us already to a dilemma.If the uni ts / z/, /z/ and /s/ are l Saussurean signs, just like the units / n/ (un-), /help/ (help), /f l/ (-ful) and /n s/ (-ness) that served to introduce the ‘morpheme’ notion in section 1, then we must concede that the units that deserve ‘sign’ status, as an alternative to words, are not after all morphemes but allomorphs of morphemes. 9 Furthermore, if / z/, /z/ and /s/ are all signifiants of signs whose signifie is ‘plural’, the morpheme that they all belong to seems somehow superfluous from the point of view of the Saussurean t sign, constituting neither a signifiant nor a signifie.On the other hand, if we wish to continue to say that it is morphemes that are signs, rather than allomorphs, we must depart from the Saussurean doctrine that a signifiant is a linearly ordered string t within the speech chain (/ z/, for example), and say instead that it is, or may be, a set d of linearly ordered strings in complementary distribution (/ z/, /z/ and /s/ , in this instance). The fact that the distribution of these allomorphs is phonologically conditioned may suggest an escape from this dilemma.If the choice between the three allomorphs is determined purely by constraints of English phonology, then perhaps we can say that, in phonological terms at least (although not phonetic), we really are dealing with only one string within the speech chain, not three. If so, the problem of multiple signifiants disappears, and the plural -s suffix conforms to the norm for a Saussurean sign. The stumbling-block is not quite so easily surmounted, however. English phonological constraints do not supply a conclusive verdict on which allomorph is appropriate in all contexts.There are many contexts where more than one of the three allomorphs is phonologically admissible, and some contexts where all three are. Consider the noun pen /pen/. Its plural form is /penz/, complying with the generalisation that the voiced form of the suffix appears after voiced sounds (other than coronal stridents). But this is not because the alternative suffix shapes yield bad phonotactic combinations. Both /pens/ and / pen z/ are phonologically wellformed, and indeed both exist as words (pence and pennies). So something more than pure ( phonotactics is at work in the choice between the three allomorphs.Only in terms of a phonological theory more sophisticated than any available in Saussure’s time (for 9 This is the view defended by Me uk (1993-2000). BASIC TERMINOLOGY 13 example, contemporary Optimality Theory) can we motivate a single phonological underlier for all three. Around the middle of the twentieth century, problems such as the one we have just encountered were typically handled by positing a level of analysis in some degree distinct from both phonology and morphology, called morphophonology (sometimes abbreviated to morphonology) or morphophonemics.The terms ‘morphophonology’ and ‘morphophonological’ are someti mes used to mean simply ‘(pertaining to) the interface between morphology and phonology’. However, morphophonemics has a more specific sense, implying a unit called a morphophoneme. In this instance, one might posit a morphophoneme /Z/ (say), realised phonologically as / z/, /z/ or /s/, according to the context. 10 This allows us to posit a single signifiant underlying / z/, /z/ and /s/, but at the cost (again) of t recognising a signifiant which departs from Saussure’s norm in that it is not t pronounceable directly.The morphophoneme /Z/, as just described, is realised by allomorphs that are distributed on a phonological basis. But complementary distribution may be based on grammar rather than phonology. English nouns such as wife, loaf and bath supply f f f an illustration of this. In the singular, they end in a voiceless fricative: /waif/, /louf/, / /ba /. In the plural, however, their stems end in a voiced fricative (/waiv/, /louv/, /ba /). (This difference b etween the singular and plural stems is reflected orthographically in wives and loaves, though not in paths. The allomorph of the plural suffix that accompanies them is therefore, as expected, the one that appears after voiced sounds: /z/. Do the singular and plural stems therefore belong to distinct morphemes? To say so would be consistent with Baudouin de Courtenay’s usage. However, more recent linguists, influenced by the identity in meaning and the nearcomplete identity in sound in pairs such as has wife and wive-, have always treated them as allomorphs of one morpheme.Yet there is nothing phonological about the plural suffix that enforces the selection of the voiced-fricative allomorph. The noun wife itself can carry the possessive marker -’s to yield a form wife’s /waifs/ with a voiceless fricative in a phonologically wellformed cluster. Moreover, not all nouns whose stems end in voiceless fricatives exhibit this voicing in the plural; for example, it does not occur in the plural forms fifes, oafs or breaths.So the voicing is restricted both lexically (it occurs in some nouns only) and grammatically (it occurs only when the plural suffix /Z/ follows). Some morphologists have handled this by positing morphophonemes such as /F/ and / /, units that are realised as a voiced phoneme in the plural and a voiceless one in the singular (Harris 1942). These nouns 10 The convention of using capital letters to represent morphophonemes was quite widespread in the mid twentieth century (see e. g. Harris 1942). But capital letters were also used to represent a purely phonological notion, the archiphoneme.An archiphoneme is a unit that replaces two or more phonemes in a context where the contrast between them is unavailable, as for example in German the m contrast between /t/ and /d/ is unavailable in syllable codas. The [t] that appears in codas in German was often said to realise not /t/, which would imply a contrast with /d/, but an archiphoneme /T/, t d implying no such contrast. It is important not to be misled by notation into confusing t morphophonemes with archiphonemes. 14 ANDREW CARSTAIRS-MCCARTHY an then be represented morphophonologically (rather than phonologically) as /waiF/, /louF/ and /ba /. The morphophoneme can be seen as a device which enables a morpheme to be t analysed as having a single signifiant (and thus as constituting a single Saussurean sign) even when in terms of its phonology it seems necessary to recognise multiple allomorphs and hence multiple signifiants – a possibility that Saussure does not allow for. But is the morphophoneme device capable of handling all multipleallomorph patterns satisfactorily? The answer is no, as I will demonstrate in the next subsections. . 2 Case study: the perfect participle forms of English verbs I use ‘perfect participle’ to refer to the form in which the lexical verb appears when accompanied by the auxiliary have, as in I have waited, I have pl ayed, I have swum. The regular English perfect participle suffix -(e)d has three shapes, /t/, /d/ and d 11 / d/. These are distributed in a fashion closely parallel to the allomorphs of the noun plural suffix: / d/ appears after coronal plosives, while elsewhere /d/ appears after voiced sounds and /t/ after voiceless ones.But, just as with the noun plural suffix, phonology alone does not always guarantee the correct choice of suffix. For d t example, /’k? n d/, /k? nd/ and /k? nt/ are all phonologically possible words and indeed actual words: canid ‘member of the subgroup of mammals to which wolves d and dogs belong’, canned ‘contained in a can’ and cant ‘hypocrisy’. These suffix d t shapes therefore illustrate the same stumbling-block and the same dilemma as the three shapes of the plural suffix.One way of handling this, as with the plural suffix, is to posit a morphophoneme (say, /D/), realised as /t/, /d/ or / d/, according to the pho nological context. However, the perfect participle exhibits complications, one of which is not paralleled in noun plurals. Some verbs have a perfect participle form with the suffix t d /t/ (orthographically -t rather than -ed) which appears even where /d/ would be expected, because the last sound of the verb stem is voiced, or where / d/ would be expected, because what precedes is a coronal plosive.Examples of these ‘orthographic-t’ verbs are build (perfect participle built), bend (bent), feel (felt), keep d t d t l t (kept), spell (spelt), lose (lost), teach (taught), and buy (bought). Corresponding to t l t t t each of these it is possible to find a verb with a similar stem shape but whose perfect participle is formed with /t/, /d/ or / d/ according to the regular pattern: (1) Orthographic-t verbs Base Perfect participle build built bend bent feel felt Regular verbs Base gild tend peel Perfect participle gilded tended eeled 11 In many dialects other than mine, the thi rd allomorph is not / d/ but / d/. This does not affect my d d argument, however. BASIC TERMINOLOGY 15 seeped heaved felled oozed bleached lied keep leave spell lose teach buy kept left spelt lost taught bought seep heave fell ooze bleach lie As is clear, a further characteristic of orthographic-t verbs is that they nearly t always display a stem form that differs from the base or present-tense stem. What immediately concerns us is the suffix, however.Is it or is it not a distinct morpheme from the regular /t/ (spelt -ed) which is in complementary distribution with / d/ and d /d/? If we answer ‘yes’, we implicitly claim that the fact that /t/ is a common allomorph of the -ed morpheme as well as the sole allomorph of the -t morpheme is d t a mere coincidence. But, just as with wife and wive-, it goes against the grain to posit two distinct morphemes with the same meaning and such similar shapes. Thus the consensus in analyses of English verb morphology is that ‘ort hographic-t’ in an allomorph of the same morpheme that regular /t/, /d/ and / d/ belon